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relation between race of pupil and items in the homes of his classmates. This index of economic status includes presence or absence of a telephone, vacuum cleaner, and automobile. The average minority group student is in a class with children who have fewer of these items in their homes than is the average white student. The difference is especially great for Negroes and for Puerto Ricans. Table 2.42.4 shows that the gap between Negroes and whites exists in all sectors of the country. There is a tendency for the gap to be greatest in the South and to be quite large in the nonmetropolitan Southwest as well.

Parents' educational desires and practices.-Another aspect of home environment that influences educational opportunities of children consists of the aspirations that parents have for their children. Measures of this include scales where students rated how good a student each parent wanted him to be, how much education each parent wanted him to have, how often his parents attended parent association meetings the previous school year, how often the student and his parents discuss schoolwork, and whether his parents read to him before he could read himself. The various races are about equal in their exposure to fellow pupils who reported their parents to be highly interested in their education. Table 2.42.1 shows that the only large difference is in attendance at PTA or other parent association meetings. Here the average Negro is more exposed to pupils who report parents attend PTA meetings than is the average white. This difference exists in all sectors of the country and is especially strong in the South and the Southwest.

These reports, even if exaggerated, indicate that the Negro children, their parents, or both, are highly directed toward the school system as a means toward social mobility. The general pattern that the reports show, of parents highly interested in their educational success, is probably correct. It is evident, however, that this interest. often does not get translated into action which supports the child's work in school. There may be a much less simple connection than ordinarily assumed between a parent's expressed interest in educational achievement, and his behavior in providing the encouragement and aid to his child that makes high achievement possible.

Reading matter in the home.-Minority group children tend to attend classes with children who

do white children. Table 2.42.3 shows that this applies to daily newspapers, encyclopedias, and number of books in the home. The discrepancy between the exposure of white and minority group children is especially great for Negroes and is also large for Puerto Ricans. The pattern for whites and Negroes tends to occur in all sectors of the country. The differences tend to be greatest in the South, although this is not consistently true.

Geographic mobility.-Stability of the student body is considered by some to be important for achievement. Accordingly, secondary school pupils were asked "When was the last time you changed schools (not counting promotions from one school to another)?" The only differences between races are between Negroes and whites. The average Negro is more likely to attend a secondary school with students who have never changed schools than is the average white. Table 2.42.6 shows that the relationship varies between sectors of the country. It is especially strong in the South and Southwest and actually reverses weakly in the metropolitan West. These results. may reflect the results of the movement of the population. Outmigration of the Negro from the rural South and the absence of immigration would account the low mobility of the Negro population remaining. The greater stability of the nonmetropolitan Negroes compared with metropolitan Negroes is consistent with this explanation.

Principals were asked a related question about the percentage of their pupils who were transfers from another school. In contrast with the pupil finding, at both elementary and secondary levels, there are no mobility differences between the races. However, table 2.42.6 shows that the same pattern of regional variation between Negroes and whites is reported by principals as by pupils. That is, the average Negro is in a more stable school than whites in the South and Southwest, but the reverse is true in the metropolitan Northeast and West. The pattern at the elementary level differs somewhat. Negro-white variation exists within different sectors of the country, however. The pattern is similar to that found at the secondary level except in the metropolitan South and Southwest. This could reflect dif

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physical violence, drinking, and use of narcotics. A "problem scale" was constructed combining these items into a single measure. Table 2.43.1 reports the results in terms of the scale where 0 indicates no problems on any of the items and 75 indicates that each is a serious problem. Nationwide, the scores average only 9 at the elementary level and 15 at the secondary level. Minority groups are consistently exposed to schools with a greater average number of problems than are whites. The difference is especially great for Negroes and Puerto Ricans. The difference between whites and Negroes tend to be present in all sectors of the country.

Table 2.43.1.-Average exposure of white and minority pupils to student academic environment characteristics, by level, for the United States, fall 1965

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Table 2.43.2.-Average exposure of white and Negro pupils to student academic environment characteristics, by level, for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, by region, fall 1965

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level, for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, by region, fall 1965—Continued

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