observed through traditional disciplinary research. They are used to explore possible states of human and natural systems, analyze key questions related to policy formulation and help set research priorities. Integration helps coordinate assumptions from different disciplines and allows feedbacks and interactions absent from individual disciplines to be analyzed. However, the results of such analyses are no better than the information drawn from the underlying economic, atmospheric and biological sciences. Integrated assessment models are limited both by the underlying knowledge base upon which they draw and by the relatively limited experiential base.

Most current integrated assessment models do not reflect the specific social and economic dynamics of the developing and transition economies well; for example, none of the existing models addresses most market imperfections, institutional barriers, or the operation of the informal sector in these countries. This can lead to biases in global assessments when mitigation options and impacts on developing or transition economies are valued as if their economies operated like those in the developed countries.

While relatively new, integrated assessment models of climate change have evolved rapidly. Integrated assessment models tend to fall into two categories: policy evaluation and policy optimization models. Policy evaluation models are rich in physical detail and have been used to analyze the potential for deforestation as a consequence of interactions between demographics, agricultural productivity and economic growth, and the relationship between climate change and the extent of potentially malarial regions. Policy optimization models optimize over key variables (e.g., emission rates, carbon taxes) to achieve formulated policy goals (e.g., cost minimization or welfare optimization).

Governments may have different sets of criteria for assessing international as well as domestic greenhouse policy instruments. Among these criteria are efficiency and cost-effectiveness, effectiveness in achieving stated environmental targets, distributional (including intergenerational) equity, flexibility in the face of new knowledge, understandability to the general public, and consistency with national priorities, policies, institutions and traditions. The choice of instruments may also partly reflect a desire on the part of governments to achieve other objectives, such as sustainable economic development, meeting social development goals and fiscal targets, or influencing pollution levels that are indirectly related to greenhouse

gas emissions. A further concern of governments may lie with the effect of policies on competitiveness.

The world economy and indeed some individual national economies suffer from a number of price distortions which increase greenhouse gas emissions, such as some agricultural and fuel subsidies and distortions in transport pricing. A number of studies of this issue indicate that global emission reductions of 4-18%, together with increases in real incomes, are possible from phasing out fuel subsidies. For the most part, reducing such distortions could lower emissions and increase economic efficiency. However, subsidies are often introduced and price distortions maintained for social and distributional reasons, and they may be difficult to remove.

Policy instruments may be identified at two different levels: those that might be used by a group of countries and those that might be used by individual nations unilaterally or to achieve compliance with a multilateral agreement.

A group13 of countries may choose from policy measures and instruments including encouragement of voluntary actions and further research, tradable quotas, joint implementation (specifically activities implemented jointly under the pilot phase14), harmonized domestic carbon taxes, international carbon taxes, nontradable quotas and various international standards. If the group did not include all major greenhouse gas emitters, then there might be a tendency for fossil fuel use to increase in countries not participating in this group. This outcome might reduce the international compet itiveness of some industries in participating countries as well as the environmental effectiveness of the countries' efforts.

At both the international and national levels, the economic literature indicates that instruments that provide economic incentives, such as taxes and tradable quotas/permits, are likely to be more costeffective than other approaches. Uniform standards among groups of countries participating in an international agreement are likely to be difficult to achieve. However, for one group of countries there has been agreement on the application of some uniform standards.

At the international level, all of the potentially efficient marketbased instruments could be examined during the course of future negotiations. A tradable quota system has the disadvantage of making the marginal cost of emissions uncertain, while a carbon tax (and related instruments) has the disadvantage of leaving the effect on the level at which emissions are controlled uncertain. The weight given to the importance of reducing these different types of uncertainty would be one crucial factor in further evaluating these alternative instruments. Because of the lack of appropriate scientific knowledge, there would remain a high degree of uncertainty about the results of limiting emissions at specific levels. The adoption of

13 The group could contain only a few, quite a number, or even all

countries.

14 See decision 5/CP.1 of the first Conference of the Parties (COP1) to the UNFCCC.

either a tradable quota scheme or international taxes would have implications for the international distribution of wealth. The distributional consequences would be the subject of negotiation. To insure the practicability of such instruments, there is a need for additional studies on the possible design of tradable quotas and harmonized taxes and on the institutional framework in which they might operate.

Individual countries that seek to implement mitigation policies can choose from among a large set of potential policies and instruments, including carbon taxes, tradable permits, deposit refund systems (and related instruments) and subsidies, as well as

technology standards, performance standards, product bans, direct government investment and voluntary agreements. Public education on the sustainable use of resources could play an important part in modifying consumption patterns and other human behaviour. The choice of measures at the domestic level may reflect objectives other than cost-effectiveness, such as meeting fiscal targets. Revenue from carbon taxes or auctioned tradable permits could be used to replace existing distortionary taxes. The choice of instruments may also reflect other environmental objectives, such as reducing non-greenhouse pollution emissions, or increasing forest cover, or other concerns such as specific impacts on particular regions or communities.

Bert Bolin (Chairman of the IPCC and Chairman of the Drafting Team); John T. Houghton, UK; Gylvan Meira Filho, Brazil; Robert T. Watson, USA; Marufu C. Zinyowera, Zimbabwe; James Bruce, Canada; Hoesung Lee, Republic of Korea; Bruce Callander, UK; Richard Moss, USA; Erik Haites, Canada; Roberto Acosta Moreno, Cuba; Tariq Banuri, Pakistan; Zhou Dadi, China;

Technical summary

Bronson Gardner, USA; José Goldemberg, Brazil; Jean-Charles Hourcade, France; Michael Jefferson, UK; Jerry Melillo, USA; Irving Mintzer, USA; Richard Odingo, Kenya; Martin Parry, UK; Martha Perdomo, Venezuela; Cornelia Quennet-Thielen, Germany; Pier Vellinga, Netherlands; Narasimhan Sundararaman (Secretary of the IPCC).

D. Albritton, USA; B. Bolin, Sweden; B. Callander, UK; K. Denman,
Canada; R. Dickinson, USA; L. Gates, USA; H. Grassl, Switzerland;
M. Grubb, UK; N. Harris, UK; J. Houghton, UK; P. Jonas, UK;
A. Kattenberg, The Netherlands; K. Maskell, UK; G. McBean, Canada;
M. McFarland, Kenya; G. Meira, Brazil; J. Melillo, USA; N. Nicholls,
Australia; L. Ogallo, Kenya; M. Oppenheimer, USA; M. Prather, USA;
B. Santer, USA; D. Schimel, USA; K. Shine, UK; K. Trenberth, USA;
R. Warrick, New Zealand; R. Watson, USA; J. Zillman, Australia
Chapter 1: The climate system: an overview
Convening lead author

K. Trenberth, USA

Lead authors

J. Houghton, UK; G. Meira, Brazil

Chapter 2: Radiative forcing of climate change
Convening lead authors

D. Albritton, USA; P. Jonas, UK; M. Prather, USA; D. Schimel, USA;
K. Shine, UK

Lead authors

D. Alves, Brazil; R. Charlson, USA; R. Derwent, UK; D. Ehhalt, Germany; I. Enting, Australia; Y. Fouquart, France; P. Fraser, Australia; M. Heimann, Germany; I. Isaksen, Norway; F. Joos, Switzerland; M. Lal, India; V. Ramaswamy, USA; D. Raynaud, France; H. Rodhe, Sweden; S. Sadasivan, India; E. Sanhueza, Venezuela; S. Solomon, USA; J. Srinivasan, USA; T. Wigley, USA; D. Wuebbles, USA; X. Zhou, China Contributors

F. Alyea, USA; T. Anderson, USA; M. Andreae, Germany; D. Blake, USA; O. Boucher, France; C. Brühl, Germany; J. Butler, USA; D. Cunnold, USA; J. Dignon, USA; E. Dlugokenchy, USA; J. Elkins, USA; I. Fung, Canada; M. Geller, USA; D. Hauglustaine, France; J. Haywood, USA; J. Heintzenberg, Germany; D. Jacob, USA; A. Jain, USA; C. Keeling, USA; S. Khmelevtsov, Russian Federation; J. Lelieveld, The Netherlands; H. Le Treut, France; 1. Levin, Germany; M. Maiss, Germany; G. Marland, USA; S. Marshall, USA; P. Midgley, Germany; B. Miller, USA; J. Mitchell, UK; S. Montzka, USA; H. Nakane, Japan; P. Novelli, USA; B. O'Neill, USA; D. Oram, UK; S. Penkett, UK; J. Penner, USA; S. Prinn, USA; P. Quay, USA; A. Robock, USA; S. Schwart, USA;

P. Simmonds, UK; S. Singh, India; A. Slingo, UK; F. Stordal, Norway,
E. Sulzman, USA; P. Tans, USA; R. Weiss, USA; A. Wharner; Germany;
T. Whort, USA

Chapter 3: Observed climate variability and change
Convening lead author

N. Nicholls, Australia Lead authors

G. Gruza, Russian Federation; J. Jouzel, France; T. Karl, USA; L. Ogallo, Kenya; D. Parker, UK

Contributors

J. Angell, USA; S. Anjian, China; P. Arkin, USA; R. Balling Jr, USA; M. Bardin, Russian Federation; R. Barry, USA; W. Bomin, China; R. Bradley, USA; K. Briffa, UK; A. Carleton, USA; D. Cayan, USA; F. Chiew, Australia; J. Christy, USA; J. Church, Australia; E. Cook, USA; T. Crowley, USA; N. Datsenko, Russian Federation; R. Davis, USA; B. Dey, USA; H. Dia, USA; W. Drosdowsky, Australia; M. Duarte, Argentina; J. Duplessy, France; D. Easterling, USA; J. Eischeid, USA; W. Elliott, USA; B. Findlay, Canada; H. Flohn, Germany; C. Folland, UK; R. Franke, Germany, P. Frich, Denmark; D. Gaffen, USA; V. Georgievsky, Russian Federation; T. Ginsburg, Russian Federation; W. Gould, UK; P. Groisman, Russian Federation; D. Gullet, Canada; W. Haeberli, Switzerland; S. Hastenrath, USA; A. Henderson-Sellers, Australia; M. Hoelzle, Switzerland; W. Hogg, Canada; G. Holland, Australia; L. Hopkins, Australia; M. Hulme, UK; N. Ivachtchenko, Russian Federation; P. Jones, UK; R. Kat, USA; B. Kininmonth, Australia; R. Knight, USA; N. Kononova, Russian Federation; L. Korovkina, Russian Federation; G. Kukla, USA; K. Kumar, India; P. Lamb, USA; C. Landsea, USA; S. Levitus, USA; T. Lewis, Canada; H. Lins, USA; J. Lough, Australia; L. Malone, Canada; J. Marengo, Brazil; T. McMahon, Australia; E. Mekis, Canada; A. Meshcherskya, Russian Federation; P. Michaels, USA; S. Nicholson, USA; J. Oerlemans, The Netherlands; G. Ohring, USA; G. Pant, India; N. Plummer, Australia; F. Quinn, USA; E. Ranʼkova, Russian Federation; E.V. Rocheva, Russian Federation; C. Ropelewski, USA; B. Santer, USA; H. Schmidt, Germany, E. Semenyuk, Russian Federation; I. Shiklomanov, Russian Federation; M. Shinoda, Japan; N. Sidorenkov, Russian Federation; I. Soldatova, Russian Federation; D. Sonechkin, Russian Federation; R. Spencer, USA;

N. Speranskaya, Russian Federation; K. Trenberth, USA; C. Tsay, Taiwan; J. Walsh, USA; K. Wang, Canada; N. Ward, Italy; S. Warren, USA; T. Yasunari, Japan; Q. Zu, China

Chapter 4: Climate processes Convening lead author

R. Dickinson, USA

Lead authors

V. Meleshko, Russian Federation; D. Randall, USA; E. Sarachik, USA;
P. Silva-Dias, Brazil; A. Slingo, UK
Contributors

A. Barros, USA; O. Boucher, France; R. Cess, USA; A. Del Genio, USA;
L. Dumenil, Germany; R. Fu, USA; P. Gleckler, USA; J. Hansen, USA;
R. Lindzen, USA; E. Maier-Reimer, Germany; K. McNaughton, New
Zealand; J. McWilliams, USA; G. Meehl, USA; M. Miller, UK; D. Neelin,
USA; E. Olaguer, USA; T. Palmer, UK; C. Penland, USA; R. Pinker, USA;
V. Ramaswamy, USA; D. Rind, USA; A. Robock, USA; M. Salby, USA;
M. Schlessinger, USA; H. Schmid, Switzerland; 2. Senior, UK; Q. Shao,
USA; K. Shine, UK; H. Sundquist, Sweden; A. Vogelmann, USA;
A. Weaver, Canada

Chapter 5: Climate models - evaluation
Convening lead author

W. Gates, USA

Lead authors

G. Boer, Canada; A. Henderson-Sellers, Australia; C. Folland, UK;
A. Kitoh, Japan; B. McAvaney, Australia; F. Semazzi, USA; N. Smith,
Australia; A. Weaver, Canada; Q. Zeng, China
Contributors

J. Boyle, USA; R. Cess, USA; T. Chen, Australia; J. Christy, USA;
C. Covey, USA; T. Crowley, USA; U. Cubasch, Germany; J. Davies, UK;
M. Fiorino, USA; G. Flato, Canada; C. Fredericksen, Australia; F. Giorgi,
USA; P. Gleckler, USA; J. Hack, USA; J. Hansen, USA; G. Hegeri,
Germany; R. Huang, USA; P. Irannejad, Australia; T. Johns, UK; J. Kiehl,
USA; H. Koide, Japan; R. Koster, USA; J. Kutzbach, USA; S. Lambert,
Canada; R. Latif, Germany; N. Lau, USA; P. Lemke, Germany;
R. Livezey, USA; P. Love, Australia; N. McFarlane, Canada; K. McGuffie,
USA; G. Meehl, USA; I. Mokhov, Russian Federation; A. Noda, Japan;
B. Otto-Bliesner, USA; T. Palmer, UK; T. Phillips, USA; A. Pitman,
Australia; J. Polcher, France; G. Potter, USA; S.B. Power, Australia;
D. Randall, USA; P. Rasch, USA; A. Robock, USA; B. Santer, USA;
E. Sarachik, USA; N. Sato, Japan; A. Semtner Jr, USA; J. Slingo, UK;
I. Smith, UK; K. Sperber, USA; R. Stouffer, USA; M. Sugi, Japan; J. Syktus,
Australia; K. Taylor, USA; S. Tett, UK; S. Tibaldi, Italy; W. Wang, USA;
W. Washington, USA; B. Weare, USA; D. Williamson, USA;
T. Yamagata, Japan; Z. Yang, USA; R. Zhang, China; M. Zhang, USA;
F. Zwiers, Canada

Australia; J. Copeland, USA; P. Cox, UK; A. Cress, Germany;
U. Cubasch, Germany; M. Deque, France; G. Flato, Canada; C. Fu,
China; I. Fung, Canada; J. Garratt, Australia; S. Ghan, USA; H. Gordon,
Australia; J. Gregory, UK; P. Guttorp, USA; A. Henderson-Sellers,
Australia; K. Hennessy, Australia; H. Hirakuchi, Japan; G. Holland,
Australia; B. Horton, UK; T. Johns, UK; R. Jones, UK; M. Kanamitsu,
USA; T. Karl, USA; D. Karoly, Australia; A. Keen, UK; T. Kittel, USA;
T. Knutson, USA; T. Koide, Japan; G. Können, The Netherlands; M. Lal,
India; R. Laprise, Canada; R. Leung, USA; A. Lupo, USA; A. Lynch,
Australia; C. Ma, USA; B. Machenhauer, Germany; E. Maier-Reimer,
Germany; M. Marinucci, USA; B. McAvaney, Australia; J. McGregor,
Australia; L. Mearns, USA; N. Miller, USA; J. Murphy, UK; A. Noda,
Japan; M. Noguer, UK; J. Oberhuber, Germany; S. Parey, France;
H. Pleym, Norway; J. Raisanen, Finland; D. Randall, USA; S. Raper, UK;
P. Rayner, USA; J. Roads, USA; E. Roeckner, Germany; G. Russell, USA;
H. Sasaki, Japan; F. Semazzi, USA; C. Senior, UK; C. Skelly, Australia;
K. Sperber, USA; K. Taylor, USA; S. Tett, UK; H. von Storch, Germany;
K. Walsh, Australia; P. Whetton, Australia; D. Wilks, USA;
1. Woodward, UK; F. Zwiers, Canada

Chapter 7: Changes in sea level
Convening lead author

D. Warrick, New Zealand
Lead authors

C. Le Provost, France; M. Meier, USA; J. Oerlemans, The Netherlands;
P. Woodworth, UK
Contributors

R. Alley, USA; C. Bentley, USA; R. Bindschadler, USA; R. Braithwaite,
UK; B. Douglas, USA; M. Dyurgerov, Russian Federation; N. Flemming,
UK; C. Genthon, France; V. Gornit, USA; J. Gregory, UK; W. Haeberli,
Switzerland; P. Huybrechts, Germany; T. Jóhannesson, Iceland;
U. Mikolajewic, Germany; S. Raper, UK; D. Sahagian, USA; T. Wigley,
USA; J. de Wolde, The Netherlands

Chapter 8: Detection of climate change and attribution of causes

Convening lead author

B. Santer, USA

Lead authors

E. Anyamba, USA; T. Barnett, USA; T. Wigley, USA
Contributors

P. Bloomfield, USA; E. Cook, USA; C. Covey, USA; T. Crowley, USA;
T. Delworth, USA; L. Gates, USA; N. Graham, USA; J. Gregory, UK;
J. Hansen, USA, K. Hasselmann, Germany; G. Hegerl, Germany;
T. Johns, UK; P. Jones, UK; T. Karl, USA; D. Karoly, Australia;
H. Kheshgi, USA; M. MacCracken, USA; K. Maskell, UK; G. Meehl, USA;
J. Mitchell, UK; J. Murphy, UK; N. Nicholls, Australia; G. North, USA;
M. Oppenheimer, USA; J. Penner, USA; S. Power, Australia; A. Robock,
USA; C. Senior, UK; K. Taylor, USA; S. Tett, UK; F. Zwiers, Canada
Chapter 9: Terrestrial biotic responses to environmental
change and feedbacks to climate
Convening lead author

J. Melillo, USA

Lead authors

G. Farquhar, Australia; C. Prentice, Sweden; O. Sala, Argentina; E. Schulze; Germany

Contributors

P. Bartlein; USA, F. Bazzaz; USA, R. Bradshaw, Sweden; J. Clark, USA;
M. Claussen, Germany; G. Collat, USA; M. Coughenour, USA; C. Field,
USA; J. Foley, Australia; A. Friend, UK; B. Huntley, UK; C. Körner,
Switzerland; W. Kur, Canada; R. Leemans, The Netherlands; J. Lloyd,
Australia; P. Martin, Italy; K. McNaughton, New Zealand; A. McGuire,
USA; R. Neilson, USA; W. Oechel, USA; J. Overpeck, USA; W. Parton,
USA; L. Pitelka, USA; D. Rind, USA; S. Running, USA; D. Schimel, USA;
T. Smith, USA; T. Webb, USA; C. Whitlock, USA

Chapter 10: Marine biotic responses to environmental
change and feedbacks to climate
Convening lead author

K. Denman, Canada

Lead authors

E. Hofmann, USA; H. Marchant, Australia

Contributors

M. Abbott, USA; T. Bates, USA; S. Calvert, Canada; M. Fasham, UK;
R. Jahnke, USA; S. Kempe, Germany; R. Lara, Germany; C. Law, UK;
P. Liss, UK; A. Michaels, Bermuda; T. Pederson, Canada; M. Peña,
Canada; T. Platt, Canada; K. Van Scoy, UK; J. Sharp, USA; D. Thomas,
Israel; J. Walsh, USA; A. Watson, UK

Chapter 11: Advancing our understanding
Convening lead author

G. McBean, Canada
Lead authors

P. Liss, UK; S. Schneider, USA

Authors/contributors to the summary for policymakers and technical summary

R.T. Watson, USA; M.C. Zinyowera, Zimbabwe; R.H. Moss, USA; R. Acosta Moreno, Cuba; S. Adhikary, Nepal; M. Adler, USA; S. Agrawala, India; A. Guillermo Aguilar, Mexico; S. Al-Khouli, Saudi Arabia; B. Allen-Diaz, USA; M. Ando, Japan; R. Andressen, Venezuela; B.W. Ang, Singapore; N. Arnell, UK; A. Arquit-Niederberger, Switzerland; W. Baethgen, Uruguay; B. Bates, Australia; M. Beniston, Switzerland; R. Bierbaum, USA; L. Bijlsma, The Netherlands; M. Boko, Benin; B. Bolin, Sweden; S. Bolton, USA; E. Bravo, Venezuela; S. Brown, USA; P. Bullock, UK; M. Cannell, UK; O. Canziani, Argentina; R. Carcavallo, Argentina; C. Clemente Cerri, Brazil; W. Chandler, USA; F. Cheghe, Kenya; Chunzhen Liu, China; V. Cole, USA; W. Cramer, Germany; R.V. Cruz, Philippines; O. Davidson, Sierra Leone; E. Desa, India; Deying Xu, China; S. Diaz, Argentina; A. Dlugolecki, UK; J. Edmonds, USA; J. Everett, USA; A. Fischlin, Switzerland; B. Fitzharris, New Zealand; D. Fox, USA; J. Friaa, Tunisia; A. Rauja Gacuhi, Kenya; W. Galinski, Poland; H. Gitay, Australia; P. Groffman, USA; A. Grubler, Austria; H. Gruenspecht, USA; S. Hamburg, USA; T. Hoffman, South Africa; J.I. Holten, Norway; H. Ishitani, Japan; V. Ittekkot, Germany; T. Johansson, Sweden; Z. Kaczmarek, Poland; T. Kashiwagi, Japan; M. Kirschbaum, Australia; P. Komor, USA; A. Krovnin, Russian Federation; R. Klein, The Netherlands; S. Kulshrestha, India; H. Lang, Switzerland; H. Le Houerou, France; R. Leemans, The Netherlands; M. Levine, USA; Lin Erda, China; D. Lluch-Belda, Mexico; M. MacCracken, USA; J. Magnuson, USA; G. Mailu, Kenya; J. Mworia Maitima, Kenya; G. Marland, USA; K. Maskell, UK; R. McLean, Australia; A. McMichael, Australia/UK; L. Michaelis, France; E. Miles, USA; W. Moomaw, USA; R. Moreira, Brazil; P. Mulholland, USA; N. Nakicenovic, Austria; R. Nicholls, UK; S. Nishioka, Japan; I. Noble, Australia; L. Nurse, Barbados; R. Odongo, Kenya; R. Ohashi, Japan; E. Okemwa, Kenya; M. Oquist, Sweden; M. Parry, UK; M. Perdomo, Venezuela; M. Petit, France; W. Piver, USA; P.S. Ramakrishnan, India; N.H. Ravindranath, India; J. Reilly, USA; A. Riedacker, France; H.-H. Rogner, Canada; J. Sathaye, USA; D. Sauerbeck, Germany; M. Scott, USA; S. Sharma, India; D. Shriner, USA; S.K. Sinha, India; J. Skea, UK; A. Solomon, USA; E. Stakhiv, USA; O. Starosolszky,

Hungary; Su Jilan, China; A. Suarez, Cuba; B. Svensson, Sweden; H. Takakura, Japan; M. Taylor, USA; L.Tessier, France; D. Tirpak, USA; Tran Viet Lien, Vietnam; J.-P. Troadec, France; H. Tsukamoto, Japan; I. Tsuzaka, Japan; P. Vellinga, The Netherlands; T. Williams, USA; P. Young, USA; Youyu Xie, China; Zhou Fengqi, China

Chapter A: Ecophysiological, ecological, and soil processes in terrestrial ecosystems: a primer on general concepts and relationships

Convening lead author

M.U.F. Kirschbaum, Australia Lead authors

P. Bullock, UK; J.R. Evans, Australia; K. Goulding, UK; P.G. Jarvis, UK; 1.R. Noble, Australia; M. Rounsevell, UK; T.D. Sharkey, USA Contributors

M.P. Austin, Australia; P. Brookes, UK; S. Brown, USA; H.K.M. Bugmann, Germany, W.P. Cramer, Germany; S. Diaz, Argentina; H. Gitay, Australia; S.P. Hamburg, USA; J. Harris, UK; J.I. Holten, Norway; P.E. Kriedemann, Australia; H.N. Le Houerou, France; S. Linder, Sweden; RJ. Luxmoore, USA; R.E. McMurtrie, Australia; L.F. Pitelka, USA; D. Powlson, UK; R.J. Raison, Australia; E.B. Rastetter, USA; R. Roetter, Germany; J. Rogasik, Germany; D.R. Sauerbeck, Germany, W. Sombroek, FAO; S.C. van de Geijn, The Netherlands

Chapter B: Energy primer
Convening lead author

N. Nakicenovic, IIASA
Lead authors

A. Grübler, IIASA; H. Ishitani, Japan; T. Johansson, Sweden;
G. Marland, USA; J.R. Moreira, Brazil; H-H. Rogner, Canada
Chapter 1: Climate change impacts on forests
Convening lead authors

M.U.F. Kirschbaum, Australia; A. Fischlin, Switzerland

Lead authors

M.G,R. Cannell, UK; R.V.O. Cruz, Philippines; W. Galinski, Poland; W.P. Cramer, Germany