Vegetative boundaries can be compiled directly on the orthographic color image base, thus eliminating transfer of the wetland delineations from the color infrared photographs to an orthophoto image base. SELECTING MAPS AND CHARTS The choice of a working map or chart for use in a coastal management program depends on program considerations, such as the type of program and the purpose for which the map or chart will be used, and on map considerations, such as scale, content, and accuracy. Generally, small-scale products (1:250,000 and smaller) cover a large area and provide adequate information of accuracy suitable for general planning. A single map should be used for an entire management area if possible. However, it is better to use several sheets at a larger scale if the area is so large that the scale required to fit onto one sheet of paper is too small to provide the desired content and accuracy. Specific management activities requiring greater accuracy and detail, such as boundary delineation and enforcement, require maps and charts at medium (1:100,000 to 1:50,000 scale) and large (1:24,000 and larger) scales. Planimetric maps showing the position of major features (culture, transportation systems, wetlands, vegetation, and sometimes historical sites) are frequently adequate for planning land and water resources in the coastal zone. Although they do not show continuous relief data, planimetric maps usually indicate the position of major physiographic features. Topographic maps offer much general information for land areas, although it is not all inclusive. Supplemental data from thematic maps covering such fields as geology, land use, land ownership, utilities, and population distribution are also needed by coastal managers. Topographic and bathymetric maps at medium or large scale can be used to determine erosion and sedimentation locations. Although they do not directly represent erosion and sedimentation, they do depict relief and provide insight into land-mass denudation within the coastal zone. The topographicbathymetric series being produced jointly by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the National Ocean Survey (NOS) is a good product for this purpose. These maps will be published at standard scales of 1:250,000, 1:100,000, and 1:24,000, with some at 1:10,000. The greatest single source of data for water areas is the nautical chart and its related products. Nautical charts may be subdivided according to type, all containing virtually the same information but differing in scale and intended use. There are a number of special-purpose maps, charts, and diagrams dealing with water areas. Bathymetric maps, produced by NOS at various scales and with varying content, are useful waterrelated products. Some bathymetric maps show magnetic and gravity data in addition to water depths; most cover extensive offshore areas and are helpful in planning offshore resource development. More detailed information concerning water depths in a relatively small area may be found on copies of the smooth sheet-an intermediate NOS cartographic product on which all surveyed water depths are numerically plotted. A smooth sheet is a byproduct of the chartmaking process and is not normally published; however, copies can be obtained on request. Topographic sheets (T-sheets)-also byproducts of the NOS chartmaking process-show detailed information about a narrow strip of land and water alongshore. Topographic sheets dating back to the early 19th century are available. A chronological sequence of revised sheets provides useful information about shoreline and near-shore feature changes. Aerial photographs and photographic products are used by coastal planners and managers because they show much more detail than conventional line maps. For example, orthophotomaps can be used to study vegetation and to determine the extent of wetlands. Spacecraft imagery can be used in wetland delineation and shallow-seas mapping. (See app. 7, fig. 1 for an example of space imagery that can be used in coastal planning and management.) USGS and NOS can provide technical assistance for management projects requiring maps and charts at scales larger than 1:10,000 (normally not available from the Federal Government). Contact: or: Chief, Office of Research and Technical Standards, Topographic Division U.S. Geological Survey MS 519 National Center Reston, Virginia 22092 Chief, Coastal Mapping Division National Oceanic and Atmospheric 6001 Executive Boulevard There are a number of private mapping companies that produce aerial photographs and large-scale maps (see app. 4). Help in selecting suitable maps, charts, and related data for coastal management may be obtained from the Coastal Mapping Division (NOS) or from: User Services Section National Cartographic Information Center Telephone: 703-860-6045 The section "Sources of assistance and advice" gives a detailed description of Federal mapping and charting programs and sources of described products. SPECIAL PROBLEMS Coastal managers should recognize that while private contractors routinely make topographic and planimetric maps of land areas, few make bathymetric maps. Therefore, care must be taken in choosing a contractor for maps displaying shoreline detail and water depth. Coastal managers can direct questions to Federal agencies that make bathymetric products (see the section, "Product and data sources"). Some significant problems encountered in mapping the coastal zone concern (1) tidal datums, (2) rapid changes in shoreline and alongshore features, (3) coastal boundaries, and (4) data acquisition. procedures. TIDAL DATUMS Tidal datums, base elevations defined by certain tide phases, are critical in the part of the coastal zone affected by tidal fluctuations. They provide the bases for establishing coastal boundaries, limits of the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, water depths and critical shorelines on maps and charts, and the limits of various regulatory activities and responsibilities affecting coastal management. Knowledge of the tides and tidal datums is essential for promoting and regulating safe navigation in a national water transportation system and for numerous engineering and scientific activities. Lake levels in the Great Lakes area occupy a position comparable to that of tidal datums along the ocean coasts. Fluctuations of water levels in the Great Lakes result chiefly from meteorological forces; the magnitude of astronomic tides is greatly reduced. A lake-level datum is established from information acquired by methods and equipment similar to those used for ocean-tide observations, but the resulting data are processed differently because of the lack of lunisolar effect. SHORELINE CHANGES Changes in the shoreline occur frequently, and often quickly, as a result of actions of both natural and man-induced forces. Alongshore features are subject to rapid change, principally through the activities of man and most significantly in areas having the greatest development and congestion. Such changes soon make maps and charts obsolete and increase the workload required to conduct effective coastal management programs. BOUNDARIES Boundaries in the coastal zone range from the limits of private property to the international boundary. All of them are affected to some degree by tidal datums along the coast and along island shorelines. Corresponding boundaries in the Great Lakes area are fixed either by treaty or by acts of Congress, or are controlled by a lake level. Of all these boundaries, those between private and sovereign lands cause the greatest problems. Recent maps (prepared by modern techniques) and related data, such as aerial photographs and tidal information, are of great help in resolving boundary problems. The recognized offshore boundary between Federal and most State areas is the 3-nmi (5.5 km) limit. Florida and Texas use a 9-nmi (16.6 km) limit. Distances are measured seaward from the mean low water line (Atlantic and Gulf Coasts) or the mean lower low water line (Pacific Coast) as shown on the large-scale coast charts of NOS. DATA ACQUISITION PROCEDURES Because tidal datums are usually needed before aerial photographs can be taken for shoreline mapping, a long lead time is required for observations and data reduction. Analysis and integration of tidal data over an extended area can become very complicated. Procurement of acceptable aerial photographs for coastal mapping can present a number of problems that can be minimized through proper planning and patience. Tide-coordinated photographs must be taken at the time the desired tide stage occurs. Clouds and haze must be minimal, especially for color photography. Loss of imagery because of sunspots (reflection of the Sun from the water's surface directly into the camera lens) can be minimized or eliminated by proper flight direction, endlap, and time frame. STATE COASTAL MAPPING PROGRAMS California, Delaware, Florida, New Jersey, and Texas are some of the States that currently operate coastal mapping programs. For detailed information write to the State coastal zone managers listed in appendix 3. CALIFORNIA Various State agencies are engaged in projects for which accurate coastal maps would be useful. In 1967, under the California Comprehensive Ocean Area Plan (COAP), the first methodical aerial mapping of the California coastline was completed. Land use maps were compiled on USGS 7.5-min base maps. Both land use site-characteristics inventory maps and ownership inventory maps were printed at the scale of 1:31,680. For further information, or to order maps, write to: California Coastal Zone Conservation Commission As part of COAP, the Department of Parks and Recreation did a mapping study entitled "The California Coastal Preservation and Recreation Plan." The Department does individual mapping studies of priority areas but has no continuing coastal mapping program. The California Coastal Zone Conservation Commission presented its Coastal Plan to the State Legislature in 1975. Its coastal resources maps show the distribution of resources as described in the plan and identify problems concerning the coastal zone. Regional commissions within the State are expected to prepare more detailed maps at larger scales. California coastal resources have been classified as follows: (1) Special marine environment, (2) wetland or estuary, (3) special land habitat, (4) other land habitat or open space area, (5) grazing, (6) cultivated agricultural lands and class I and II soils, (7) forestry resource area, (8) mineral extraction area, (9) developed area, and (10) existing recreation area. During the past few years, the State has been involved in litigation to determine ownership boundaries in San Francisco Bay. In addition to making limited ground and aerial surveys, the State has contracted with NOS for historical information about tidal datums in that area. Although the project was undertaken because of contested ownership, the results of the mapping and tidaldatum studies will be useful as a more comprehensive program is established. Because of increasing statewide interest and problems associated with the coastal zone, the need for a comprehensive program has become apparent. Coastal mapping needs have been identified in regulatory, ownership, development, and environmental fields. Mapping scales needed for such diversified interests would vary, and to date no technical specifications have been adopted. DELAWARE The Delaware coastal zone program includes three mapping efforts: Land use maps, a wetland atlas, and coastal-flooding maps. Land-use/naturalcover maps are being prepared for the entire State based on interpretation of infrared satellite and aircraft photographs, USGS aerial photographs, and other data. The wetlands atlas is based on interpretations of productivity, flood prevention, habitat, and water quality, and it includes data on significant marine species. The coastal-flooding maps (more detailed than the HUD flood-insurance maps) indicate areas subject to flood damage, the frequency and extent of damage, and other conditions for proper coastal development. Standard scales used (in order of decreasing use) are 1:24,000, 1:9,600, 1:4,800, 1:63,360, 1:126,720, 1:253,440, and 1:2,400. The 1:24,000-scale maps in both aerial-mosaic and planimetric form are the base maps for Delaware's coastal zone program. They are used for the land use maps, to plot permit and development activities, and as graphics related to such studies as wetlands, coastal erosion, geology, and hydrology. The State and all three county governments established the 1:9,600 scale as the standard for most planning and management purposes. That scale, on aerial-mosaic and planimetric bases, has been used since 1964. The maps were prepared by a private contractor for the various governments as part of a joint venture and are routinely updated. Maps of the USGS 1:24,000-scale 7.5-min quadrangle series have also been used as a planning base in Delaware, and were supplemented with 1973 aerial mosaics at quadrangle scale, although no new quadrangle maps were prepared. Other base materials are from the State Division of Highways and from respective county tax-assessment/propertyownership mapping programs completed in the past few years for most of the State. The three county mapping efforts are being partially completed by contractors. Private consultants and the University of Delaware prepare draft copies. Final graphics, including maps, are prepared by the Delaware State Planning Office to assure consistency in format, scale, notation, and material. Major problems encountered to date include basemap obsolescense and inconsistencies in scales and formats of source materials. These problems are being overcome by centralizing the final mapping and through acquisition of a set of USGS aerial photographs that are being used to generate base maps. An unsolved problem relates to obtaining accurate topographic maps with either a 2- or 5-ft (0.6 or 1.5-m) contour interval. This problem will not be solved by the current coastal zone management program because of the cost and time required. FLORIDA Florida's coastal zone program has had two primary objectives: (1) To provide a comprehensive data base (modified land use levels II and III of Anderson and others, 1976) to support activities of the Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning, and (2) to provide county/regional site analysis for selected work elements to support local requirements. "Coastal Zone Management in Florida-1971" is a report on the pilot project used to design the format and methods for developing Florida's coastal-zone management program. The report consists of text, thematic maps, and a matrix display for each zoning category showing defined criteria and established and recommended State policy. The counties selected for the study were Escambia and Santa Rosa (collectively referred to as Escarosa) because they contain prime examples of hydrology, physiography, and economics common to the entire Florida coastal zone. The "Florida Coastal Zone Management Atlas 1972" provides decisionmakers and concerned citizens with an overview of the components that make up the coastal environment of Florida. The atlas delineates the areas already developed and those physically suited to future development where it will have a minimum detrimental effect on the environment. The atlas contains an inventory of relatively undisturbed natural features and recommends preservation of essential segments to ensure the maintenance of marine life, esthetic qualities of the coast, and the physical integrity of the shorelands. A conservation zone is recommended between development and preservation areas where development is controlled by specific physical limitations. The "Florida Keys Coastal Zone Management Study-1974" was prepared as a model for statewide coastal-zone planning. The design followed the same biophysical outline as the Management Atlas, except that a level-III data base was generated to provide site-analysis detail. Sections on socioeconomic and environmental-quality analysis were added. The Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning and regional planning staffs have prepared a biophysical and socioeconomic analysis using the years 1973-74 as a data generation base. The biophysical analysis is a level II updating of the Management Atlas data with a scale of 1:126,720 and 40-acre data cells. The socioeconomic analysis maps are at 1:24,000 scale, with data cells ranging from 5 to 20 acres depending on the complexity of data and reproduction scale limitations. The methods and techniques for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating data follow much the same procedures used in the Florida Keys Management Study. In FY 1977 data previously input on a site response basis will be revised and updated using level-III information and 1-5-acre data cells at 1:24,000 scale. Another thematic project is a synoptic map of the Florida coral reef system and associated bottom detail. This interagency program is a long-term study of relations between nature and man and their effect on the health of the reef system. A number of cooperative programs between Florida and both USGS and NOS are discussed in "Sources of assistance and advice." NEW JERSEY New Jersey has two coastal mapping programs, wetlands and tidelands. The wetlands mapping program put into effect provisions of the New Jersey Wetlands Act of 1970, which regulates private property to protect wetlands. Wetlands are defined in the act as "any bank, marsh, swamp, meadow, flat, or lowland subject to tidal action. along any inlet, estuary, or tributary waterway including those areas now or formerly connected to tidal waters whose surface is at or below an elevation of 1 foot above local extreme high water, and which is capable of growing some but not all of" specified species (list available from the New Jersey coastal zone program manager, app. 3). A study was contracted to determine existing wetlands mapping methods, availability of data, and funding. The study revealed that wetlands should be defined only in terms of the vegetation species without incorporating a specific elevation criterion. If these species are present, the elevation test is automatically satisfied. Also, color infrared photography should be used as the primary method to define plant species. Aerial photographs with complete stereocoverage were acquired at 1: 12,000 scale. Natural-color, color infrared, and black-and-white panchromatic films were exposed simultaneously. Black-and-white panchromatic photographs also were acquired at 1: 30,000 scale for aerotriangulation. For delineation, base maps at 1:2,400 scale were developed using rectified black-and-white enlargements of color infrared photographs. On each map the upper wetlands boundary and major vegetation associations were delineated by interpreting signatures of color infrared photographs in conjunction with natural-color photographs. Major species associations were defined as one or more species having an area of 5 acres (2 ha) or more and composing at least 25 percent of the vegetation. Stands of lesser size were not mapped unless it was in the interest of wildlife management. For example, 1-acre (0.4 ha) stands of wild rice were mapped because of value to waterfowl. Subsequent field checking showed that interpretation of color infrared signatures provided 85-90 percent of required biological data. A report containing explanations and names of the delineators accompanies each wetlands map. Property-line overlays for each base map were compiled from tax maps and show lot and block numbers, with tabular listing of ownership. The 1:2,400-scale base map was chosen because it is similar to the scale of municipal tax maps, and the accuracy is defensible in court. Wetlands maps meet National Map Accuracy Standards below the elevation of 10 ft above mean sea level. The New Jersey tidelands mapping program catalogs State riparian (now or formerly below mean high water) lands. Most maps will be made in-house; some may be contracted in the final drafting stage. Data will be drawn from over 200 tide gaging stations throughout the State. Old photographs, maps, surveys, and biological data (such as wetlands maps) will be used. NOS will help with data analysis and field direction. Final products will be base maps and overlays at 1:2,400 scale meeting National Map Accuracy Standards. The mapping of State lands in the Hackensack Meadowlands was completed by 1974. Mapping for the entire State will be completed by 1980 at a cost of $6 million. Photoquads were made to update land use patterns of the USGS topographic 7.5-min quadrangle maps of New Jersey. Aerial color infrared photographs were taken under contract at 12,200 m (40,000 ft). Final maps are 1:24,000 scale on transparent stable plastic for overlay on USGS topographic maps. The program took approximately 4 mo and cost $60,000. Updates are planned at 3yr intervals. TEXAS The Texas Coastal Management Program has defined two tiers of counties inland from the coast as the coastal region. Although the coastal management zone is only a fraction of this area, an inventory of the whole region is necessary. The base map for the inventory is a 1:250,000scale composite of two kinds of projections: the polyconic of USGS 7.5-min sheets for wetlands, as prepared by the Bureau of Economic Geology, the University of Texas at Austin; and the universal transverse Mercator for inland areas, as prepared from Army Map Service USGS 1:250,000-scale maps. The regional base map has been used for compilation of geologic substrate, potential mineral deposits, active processes, natural biologic assemblages, soil (agronomic) capabilities, water features, historical-archeological data, and current land use. These maps have been published at 1:500,000 scale with an accompanying report entitled "Resources of the Texas Coastal Region." With the regional resource inventory as background material, composite resource areas constituting coastal waters (including all bay-estuarine and nearshore Gulf systems) and shorelands (including wetlands, active dune complexes, and beaches) have been mapped. Note that such |