established the principle that insolvency shall not cost the debtor his freedom. So was St. Paul when he conceived that the gospel was for gentiles as well as for Jews. So was St. Benedict when he devised the "Rule" that gave form to the monastic communities of the West. So was Hildebrand when he imposed sacerdotal celibacy upon the church. If we may believe Maine, the strong feeling among the Latin peoples in favor of portioning daughters is "descended by a long chain of succession from the obligatory provisions of the marriage laws of the emperor Augustus." Whoever conceived this Lex Julia et Papia Poppœа was in reality a social Edison. Pythagoras, St. Francis, and Loyola originated new types of religious con-fraternity. Grotius modified the relations of nations. Robert Raikes invented the Sunday school, Toynbee the social settlement, Le Claire the profit-sharing group, Raffeisen and Schulze-Delitzsch the co-operative credit association. Pinel and Tuke invented the modern insane hospital, Marbeau the crèche, Howard and his successors the reformatory.

We know, moreover, that the evolution of law is determined, not only by the development of social needs, but also by the original conceptions and ideas of individuals. Deuteronomy is a reformers' code embodying their ideals of law. Roman law was developed by the jurisconsults, the commentators, and the prætors. Mohammedan law has been built up by the Muftis, or doctors of law versed in the Koran. English law owes much to the decisions conceived by innovating judges or suggested by ingenious lawyers. The Code Napoléon is virtually a codification of Pothier's commentaries on the civil law. Furthermore, the juridical speculations of Kant and Bentham have had farreaching practical effects.

V. The contact and cross-fertilization of cultures.- A society may be swerved from its natural orbit by borrowing institutions which have originated—whether by innovation or by adaptation-in some other society. We have only to recall how the Christian church, Roman law, the feudal tenure, parliamentary government, the jury system, and the federal principle spread beyond their original habitat by imitation. The Servian consti

tution of the Romans, which laid the duty of military service upon the possessors of land instead of upon the burgesses alone, was evidently, says Mommsen, "produced under Greek influence." Marcus Aurelius borrowed from the Germans the status of serfs or liti. The centralized government of Louis XIV. found imitators all over Europe. The spectacle of free institutions across the Channel was fatal to the old régime in France. The abolition of slavery, as now the woman's movement and social legislation, spread largely by national example. A true social evolution obeying resident forces has nearly disappeared from the face of the earth, seeing that today the germs of every new social arrangement are blown throughout the world and peoples at the most diverse stages of culture are eagerly adopting the jurisprudence, the laws, and the institutions of the most advanced societies.

Such open-mindedness is, however, a rather recent phenomenon. Usually the peoples have borrowed, not alien institutions, but alien elements of culture, which, nevertheless, in time are likely to work social transformations. When a backward people is in contact with a highly cultured one, there occurs simple borrowing, but when the peoples are nearly abreast on different lines of development, one fructifies the other and a higher culture results. Just as the crossing of two strains may yield a creature superior to either, so the crossing of two cultures in the minds of an élite may initiate a superior civilization. One reason is that contact with a culture not too unlike one's own produces that open-mindedness so essential to progress. Another is that by retaining what is best in its own culture and replacing its poorer elements with superior elements from an alien culture, a people may create a blend surpassing both civilizations. Finally, the meeting in originative minds of dissimilar ideas or ideals may fecundate thought and produce a flood of inventions. It is thus that the meeting of Orient and Occident engendered neoPlatonism, and the mutual fertilization of Christian tradition and classic culture by the Revival of Learning produced the Renaissance.

The story of Israel strikingly illustrates the molding of social

destiny by the repeated interplay of foreign influence and native endowment. The nomadic Beni-Israel learned from the Canaanites what they knew of the raising of grain, the culture of the vine, the arts of the smith and the potter. Other great waves of foreign influence came in in consequence of Solomon's alliances.

The horse took the place of the ass; metal weapons and tools supplanted the rude ones of flint and wood; walled cities arose on the sites of the primitive towns with their mud and stone hovels.

The customs, institutions, and gods of Egypt, Tyre, and Damascus were also imported. When Ahab sealed his alliance with Tyre,

new ambitions filled the minds of the rude shepherds and farmers as they came in contact with foreign life and civilization. With Phoenician wares and customs came inevitably Phoenician religion.

This influx precipitated a conflict between the rich and voluptuous Baal worship of Tyre, and the simple nomadic worship of Yahweh. In the heat and stress of this long struggle, the genius of the great literary prophets differentiated Yahweh, not only from the Syrian Baals, but also from his own original nature. The tribe-god became the god of the world, just and righteous himself, and demanding justice and righteousness in his followers.

Although this burst of development evoked by conscious opposition to an alien culture followed its own lines, the Hebrew religion was not fixed until certain foreign strands had been woven in. During the captivity of the Jews

the literary habits, and above all the intense religious zeal of their conquerors, the Babylonians, undoubtedly influenced them. The dazzling spectacle of lordly temples and of a wealthy influential priesthood also could not have failed, indirectly at least, to foster the tendency towards ritualism. From the Persian religion Judaism received the idea of a resurrection with rewards and punishments, the idea of a hierarchy of messengers (angels) between God and man, the figure of Satan (Ahriman), and possibly the practice of meeting for prayer, singing, and reading from the sacred books.

Another great cross-fertilization occurred after Alexander's conquests and colonizations in southwestern Asia and in Egypt

had brought into closest contact the two great currents of ancient thought and culture. Much of the progress of civilization during the succeeding centuries records the conflicts and final fusion of the permanent elements in each.

Roman law owed much to the conjugation of diverse cultureelements. Says Mr. Bryce:

The contact with the Greek republics of Southern Italy in the century before the Punic Wars must have affected the Roman mind and contributed to the ideas which took shape in the jus gentium. . . . . The extension of the sway of Rome over many subject peoples had accustomed the Romans to other legal systems than their own and had led them to create bodies of law in which three elements were blent - the purely Roman, the provincial, and those general rules and maxims of common-sense justice and utility which were deemed universally applicable.

Our modern culture owes much to successive fermentations resulting from the contact of diverse elements. While western Christendom was passing through the darkest ages, the Mohammedans took up the Greek science with very great enthusiasm and earnestness, added to it whatever results of a similar sort they could find among any of the other nations with whom they came in contact, and incorporated fresh developments of their own. The treasures of Arabic skill and science, communicated to Christendom through contact with the Moors, resulted in the burst of intellectual activity in the thirteenth century which recorded itself in Scholasticism. Two centuries later began that fertilization of the European mind through direct contact with Greek culture which has fixed the methods and ideals of the thought and science of the modern world.

Nor has the process at the eastern focal point of human culture differed essentially from that at the western. Says Metchnikoff:

Whatever these heterogeneous tribes have of civilized life, Kalmucks of the Russian steppes and Annamites of Tonkin, Tunguses of Siberia, Manchus of the Amur and the Ussuri, mariners of Fokien and Canton, emanates from one and the same center of civilization, the "Land of the Hundred Families." . . . . Nor can one doubt that if Japan had not had the good fortune to light her torch at the fire of the Celestial Empire, she would perhaps have remained like the Philippines with their Tagals and their Visayas.

VI. The interaction of societies.—The actions and reactions among the parts of a society tend either to assimilate or to differentiate. Whether it takes the form of trade, of intellectual commerce, or of social intercourse, interaction ordinarily brings about a mutual modification of ideas and feelings in the direction of greater agreement, which results in a more perfect solidarity. Trade, however, by leading to the territorial division of labor, may pave the way for local differentiation, and it is furthermore possible that social intercourse by disclosing unsuspected elements of friction may inspire antagonism rather than harmony.

Far more momentous, however, are the interactions between a society and other groups and masses in its environment. These interactions take the form of interchanges of goods or of men, and of conflict.

The springing up of commerce between societies hitherto self-sufficing makes them dependent on one another for certain articles and so constitutes them an enlarged economic unit. Meanwhile the balance of occupations within each group is overthrown, and the restoration of equilibrium may not occur without some institutional changes. Her trade with Europe is costing India her famous native arts and threatens those of Japan. In the fifteenth century the demand on the continent for English wool resulted in the conversion of fields into sheep pastures, the inclosure of much common land, the raising of rents, the eviction of customary tenants, a plethora of labor, and a freeing of the villeins from their ancient bondage. Nieboer tells us:

The slow agricultural revolution, which rendered their services less useful to the manorial lords, gradually set the villeins free by removing the interest their masters had in retaining their hold upon them. Again, it is the rise of a foreign commerce that permits slavery to expand to wholesale proportions. Negro slavery would never have developed to such a scale and gotten such a hold upon our South had not Europe stood ready to absorb immense quantities of the plantation staple, cotton, and to supply those manufactures which slave labor is so unfitted to produce. Furthermore, if two societies that begin to exchange are unequally supplied with the money metal and are therefore on different price levels, the