with it; but they must take social workers into partnership if they make their knowledge useful to mankind. There should be — and, fortunately, there generally is a good understanding between physicians and the agencies of charity. The Committee on the Prevention of Tuberculosis appointed by the C. O. S. of New York city has rendered the general public an important service by publishing this report and the accompanying papers. The discussion will tend to co-ordinate the different agencies in this field, "and to promote action by state, municipality, private institutions, and individual citizens." The program of the committee is to work for relief of the individual consumptive, to secure suitable food, provide sanatoria, dispensaries, nurses, and physicians for the poor, and promote preventive measures.

C. R. H.

The Village Problem. By GEORGE F. MILLIN. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co.; New York: Imported by Charles Scribner's Sons, 1903. Pp. 180.

THE problem of the village is the method of bringing back the English laborers from the crowded city to the land. The method proposed is the purchase of land by government, and establishing communities directed by experts and carrying on agricultural and manufacturing pursuits side by side. Incidentally in presenting his argument the author, a newspaper reporter, gives interesting facts about the productivity of the soil when cultivated by a laborer who owns all the product, and about the conditions of working people in rural England. C. R. H.

God's Children. By JAMES ALLMAN. Chicago: Charles H.

Kerr & Co., 1903. Pp. 113.

A BOOKLET from a socialist, written in the form of an allegory, in denunciation of a church which is hypocritical, and of economists who have no souls. Quite good Christian doctrine this, in which both honest parsons and real economists will find much to approve. Whether the literary quality makes it worth while to furnish this particular capsule to disguise the dose must be left to the department of literature to decide.

C. R. H.

NOTES AND ABSTRACTS.

On the Relation of Sociology to the Social Sciences and to Philosophy.

I.

The prime postulate of a science of society is the inclusion of human phenomena within the unity of nature. Thus only can social phenomena be subjected to those precise observations which may be resumed in general formulæ called natural laws. To Comte is due the establishment of this idea of extending natural law to human societies. But the sociology of Comte was in actual construction philosophical rather than scientific; i. c., it was characterized by general views, and a certain indifference for factual detail and the researches of specialists. The same is true of the sociology of Spencer. But by demonstrating the applicability of the evolution hypothesis to human societies as well as to the physical and the biological worlds, Spencer still more closely linked human to natural phenomena. In other respects, Spencer also helped to complete and rectify the general conceptions of the Comtist sociology. Thus, for example, in positing the differentiation of social types, ignored by Comte, Spencer opened the way for those taxonomic studies necessary for a scientific classification of human societies.

Most subsequent sociologists have continued the Comte-Spencer tradition of seeking to discover the general laws of social evolution by speculative rather than observational methods. But meantime, and especially during the past halfcentury, there has been taking place in the several social sciences, which have grown up outside the general conceptions of sociology, a revolution which is tantamount to a creation or recreation of these specialisms as departments of sociology.

In effecting this revolutionary change of the social sciences from a more literary and philosophic to a more scientific basis, the chief methodological factor has been the introduction of the historical and the comparative method, more especially in application to the evolutions of institutions.

Thus, the several social sciences have, more or less independently and automatically, been reorganizing themselves on a sociological basis, but without explicit reference to philosophical synthesis; while, at the same time, recent sociologists have tended to work in comparative isolation from the specialists. Thus, at the present time is manifested a certain tendency to create a general science of sociology outside, and in some degree opposed to, the several specialisms concerned with the scientific study of different departments and aspects of human society. Thus there is developing in social studies a position which is the very negation of that which Comte posited as the necessary foundation of a science of sociology.

How to arrest these perilous tendencies toward isolation - isolation of the social sciences one from another, and of general sociology from the mass of the social sciences?

The sociologist must recognize that in no other way can a unified science of society be developed than by the systematization of all scientific specialisms which are essentially sociological in character. As conspicuous examples of such necessary and legitimate sociological specialisms, the following may be mentioned: the comparative study of institutions, as transformed and developed by juristic historians like Maine, philosophical historians like Fustel de Coulanges, and their successors; economics, as pursued by investigators of the type of Schmoller and Bucher; anthropology, as developed by Prichard, Waitz, Gerland, Morgan, McLennan, etc.; comparative ethics, as studied by A. H. Post,

Steinmetz, etc.; comparative religion and folklore, as studied by Tylor, Robertson Smith, Frazer, Nutt, Hartland, etc.; comparative psychology, as established by Lazarus, Steinthal, and their successors; social statistics, as continued by the successors of Quételet; social geography, as studied by Ratzel.

Thus the specialization of which sociology has need, in order to become a truly positive science, is already a well-established movement, but one very imperfectly organized. To aid in the perfecting of this organization is the task that lies immediately to the hand of the sociologist. Among the more conspicuous of existing imperfections may be mentioned (1) the want of a sufficiently wide and effective recognition of the interdependence and unity of all social phenomena, as a necessary working hypothesis; (2) the tendency of the specialists to multiply entities needlessly (like the judicial conscience of Post), and satisfy themselves with facile explanations and naïve simplicist formulæ; (3) the tendency to interpret all social phenomena in terms of one specialism (as in the economic," or the "religious interpretation of history"); (4) the tendency of contiguous specialisms unconsciously to overlap (like religion and jurisprudence, social geography and demography, etc.); (5) the tendency of specialisms to move at random without adequate conception of a definite purpose, and hence not only to waste effort, but also to leave important areas of the sociological field uncultivated.

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What the sociologist specially needs to do in correction of these imperfections is to interpenetrate the diverse technical studies more fully with the sociological conception of unity. It is true that these specialisms are themselves spontaneously moving toward this directing idea (i. e., are acquiring the sociological orientation), but with slow and halting steps. To work toward accentuating the movement and making it more conscious, more precise, is the urgent problem of sociology. It is only through the systematization of the several social sciences that the Comtist conception will cease to be a philosophical aspiration, and become a reality. For the unity of the social kingdom cannot hope to find an adequate expression in a few general and philosophical formulæ detached from the facts and the detail of specialist research. An adequate sociology can have for its organ only a body of sciences distinct, but animated by the sentiment of their solidarity. And it may be predicted that these sciences once organized will return with accumulated interest to philosophy what they have borrowed from it.

II.

The urgent problems that confront the general sociologist at the present juncture are methodological and historical. Most pressing is the systematization of the several sociological specialisms. For on the adequacy of the organization of the extant body of knowledge depends the effective co-operation of the different groups of specialists; and on it also depends the doctrinal unification from which may be derived general precepts for the guidance of social action.

By sociological specialisms is meant the researches of investigators who specialize on some particular aspect of human phenomena - such as the historical, the political, the economic, the ethical, the psychological, the anthropological, etc. These specialisms have, for the most part, grown up as independent autonomous studies, without the self-discipline that comes from an adequate consciousness of their own historical evolution and of their own methodological apparatus. Hence it is that they have been, and are, without the controlling and unifying influence of a common ideal. Such unificatory principles as have hitherto been most readily available are survivals of a pre-evolutionary culture, and therefore inoperative for the synthesis of evolutionary science.

The deficiency of order and systematization in the interrelations of the several sociological specialisms is to be taken as a reflex of a corresponding deficiency of order and system in the interrelations of the different departments of practical life - economic, political, educational, ethical, etc. But it does not follow that the organization of the several sociological specialisms into an adequate working system should not precede the reorganization of practical life and

conduct.

On the contrary, it is a primary postulate of consciously methodized science that theoretical must precede practical reconstruction.

But the interdependence of social theory and practice does necessitate the classification of the social sciences being treated as a parallel and correlative problem with the classification of the social arts. By "classification" it is here intended to convey no implication as to specific generic and ordinal differentiation, but merely the acquisition of such common understanding of the relation of parts to the whole and of theory to practice as is needed for a working systematization available for the effective co-operation of sociological specialists. In short, the contention is that the main requirement at the present moment, as regards general sociology, is an abstract mapping of the existing field of verified and verifiable sociological knowledge.

What are the resources available for this abstract mapping of the sociological field? A preliminary question is this: How far does the history of biology afford a suggestive instance of a parallel problem? The schematization of a large number of practically independent and dispersive specialisms by subordination to a few elemental categories of known relationship has been more or less fully achieved in biology. The value of this systematization in suggesting a parallel schematization and nomenclature of sociological specialisms is, it must be remembered, a totally different problem from that of the traditional "biological analogy." In any case, it is only an item in the enumeration of resources.

These resources, apart from such as are contained within the sociological specialisms themselves, are, in the first instance, those available for the general problem of the classification (i. e., the systematization) of the whole circle of the sciences and the arts. For every science and every art has a threefold social aspect, viz., in respect of (1) historical derivation, (2) practical dependence on co-operative effort, and (3) every science being an integrate, and every art an aggregate, of social experience. The sciences collectively are just that part of social experience which has evolved a conscious need of systematization. But by the great majority of scientists this need has been explicitly felt on æsthetic and economic grounds only. The needed ethic has remained implicit, and can be brought into consciousness, and therefore made scientifically verifiable, only by explicit reference to the arts collectively and in detail. In other words, a controlling science of sociology is, as Comte showed, a necessary postulate of science itself.

Traditionally, a problem that has belonged more to philosophy than to science, the classification of the sciences, is thus essentially sociological. But in passing over from philosophy to sociology, the problem of necessity takes on a more specifically historical aspect; for, as an evolutionist, the sociologist treats it not as a mere systematization of contemporary experience, but as a phase of a continuing process, which has to be carried back as far as historical data reach, and also projected forward into the immediate future. The sociological evolutionist is concerned primarily with origins, but ultimately and supremely with ideals; and through the formulation of its larger generalizations as ideals, sociology may hope to achieve the necessary return from theory to practice. The derived practice asumes, of course, the form of rational art based on applied science, and aims at replacing empirical art based on unanalyzed experience.

The universal interdependence of social phenomena thus imposes on the sociologist, working as he does under the conception of evolution, the threefold task: (1) of constructing a reasoned account of the existing phase of that interaction of the sciences and of the arts which we call contemporary civilization; (2) of reconstructing the corresponding phases, which historically have preceded and developed the contemporary phase; and (3) of working out ideals of more ordered development for the future.

If the word occupation be taken, not in its economic sense, but as signifying any and every form of human endeavor, past, present, and future, then the most generalized statement of the problem of pure sociology is to describe, to explain, and to forecast the evolution of human occupation. To address himself to this task-in part methodological and abstract, in part his

torical and concrete- - is, it is contended, for the sociologist a specialism as definitive and legitimate as any of the other larger and more important specialisms of science. Abstract of two papers - I, by Professor DURKHEIM, and II, by Mr. BRANFORD - presented at a meeting of the Sociological Society at the School of Economics and Political Science, University of London, June 20, 1904. (NOTE.— The writer of the second paper desires to call particular attention to the two following among existing classifications of the social sciences: (a) that in use in the Année sociologique; and (b) that adopted from Professor Geddes by Dr. Haddon in his Presidential Address to the Anthropological Institute, 1903.)

The Education of the Stranger. The problem, the solution of which is attempted in the education of the Filipinos, is a unique one. Nothing less is undertaken than to bring into political co-operation members of two distinct races. Behind the mental life of the individual Filipino of today there lies the background of centuries of racial ideas and instincts. This traditional intellectual attitude is primarily barbarous, but is covered with a thin coating of European influence and civilization. It is upon this foundation that American education in the islands must be built.

From the first a policy of repression, such as that adopted by the Dutch in Java, was most carefully avoided. Filipino ability and ambition were provided with every opportunity for development. One of the greatest needs, especially in the stimulation of industrial achievement among the natives, is the presence of practical examples of modern industrial life round about him. In the absence of such examples, his interest in things industrial flags.

The most important step in the educational program which has been taken thus far is the opportunity provided the natives for learning the English language. The strong desire for its mastery which was manifested gives promise of most happy results in the breaking up of the prevailing narrowness and provincial jealousy which followed the absence of a common speech. Another advantage which may be looked for is the possibility of a political régime of a popular character, involving and interesting the natives of all parts of the islands. Through American books and periodicals knowledge of the spirit of our institutions and of the progress of civilized thought will become at once accessible.

Every legislative act is, of necessity, more or less of an experiment. In devising an educational system for the Filipinos, it was specially difficult to forecast all of the conditions under which it would be required to operate. The transformation of education from a religious to a secular function, in accordance with the American doctrine of the separation of church and state; the substitution of a new language; the transportation from beyond the seas of teachers some of them women- who should lay the foundations of free education and civilization in a semi-barbarous land - these truly were momentous steps in the solution of a great and vastly significant problem.

The great civilizations of the past have succumbed either to an invasion or to a recrudescence of barbarism, and the final perpetuity of civilization can be made certain only by such an extension of the dominant culture to the hitherto unreached races as shall render these calamitous recurrences impossible.- BERNARD MOSES, in International Quarterly, March-June, 1904. E. B. W.

Labor Problems of the Twentieth Century. Democracy has made legal great combinations both of capital and of labor, and thus far has placed few obstacles in the path of their becoming increasingly monopolistic in their respective spheres. By means of the joint agreement it is possible for the labor and capital of a given industry completely to control the price of their commodity, limited only by the consuming power of the public. This method of abstinence on the part of the consumer is the only real limit to the power of such combinations. Where the necessaries of life are involved, the danger is a serious one; and it is possible that the legislatures which created the right of association will hereafter limit that right, or restrict the purposes for which the right shall be exercised. Supervision of the operations of railroads, steamship companies, banks, insurance