possible source of much profit to the Government, projects are under way for electrifying the shafts and millhouses, as well as enlarging and modernizing the entire plant. There are several by-products of considerable importance. Uranium dyes are produced, also a radio-active watering place is being built in the vicinity of the mines.

POTASSIUM. Samples of salts sent from western Texas early in the year to the laboratories of the United States Geological Survey in Washington contained percentages of potash that suggested the richness of the potash deposits of Alsace and Germany. The samples were obtained from two borings about eighty miles apart, sunk by oil companies in the "Red Beds" regions of Texas, where salt beds, red shales, gypsum, and other materials are associated in strata of nearly the same geologic age and general character as the potash-bearing beds of western Europe. The thickness of the potash-bearing beds in Texas represented by these samples is unknown, and the question remains to be determined whether the deposit is thick enough to furnish potash in as great amount and of as high a grade as those in Europe.

The Secretary of Agriculture in his annual report announces that the experimental kelp plant at Summerland, Calif., the purpose of which is to demonstrate the practicability of extracting potash and useful by-products from the giant kelps, is in active operation and valuable results are being secured. It will be possible when the best methods have been worked out to develop a potash industry on the Pacific coast capable of supplying a considerable part of the nation's need. Two processes for the recovery of potash from certain rocks have recently been developed by the Bureau of Soils, and both are being utilized in commercial practice. The 87,000 tons of potash annually lost from flues and stacks of cement plants are still, in the main, going to waste. Only about 1 per cent was recovered in 1919. A similar situation exists with reference to the collection of potash from blast furnaces. The department is now making a survey of this situation and preliminary results show that the dust from blast furnaces is higher in potash content than the cement dust and that it can probably be recovered more economically. The potash that escapes from these two sources would, if collected in marketable form, go a long way toward meeting the normal potash requirements of the country. There is ample justification, therefore, for the appropriation of sufficient funds adequately to study those phases of the problem which properly come within the scope of the department's activities.

A report describing the processes used in the extraction of potassium salts from the Alsatian potash mines is of interest. The veins of salt are composed of alternating layers of sylvanite of varying richness and of sodium chloride and schist. The deposit is in general fairly regular, except for a few faults, and the inclinations are moderate, running from 0° to 10° and 20° and rarely exceeding 30°. The method of mining consists in the use of electric or air drills, after which explosive charges are placed in the holes. From 500 to 600 grams of explosive are required to the ton of crude salt. The mine cars are drawn by horses, but it is planned to introduce electricity. When the salt arrives above ground it is crushed to a fineness of four millimetres or under, and a large part is

shipped or sold in this form to be spread directly upon the fields. There are two qualities, the sylvanite containing twelve to sixteen per cent potash, and the rich sylvanite containing twenty to twenty-two per cent of potash. Whole shiploads of sylvanite are being sent to Australia. If the salt were refined much less tonnage would be required. The following refining plants are in operation: (1) Amelie, producing 120 tons a day of 80 per cent potassium chloride; (2) Reichslands, 120 tons a day of 80 per cent potassium chloride; (3) Theodore, 90 tons a day of potassium chloride. A very small quantity of potassium chloride of 98 per cent is manufactured for use in chemical works. Roughly, 3 tons of crude salt are required for 1 ton of refined chloride. Between 250 and 300 kilos of coal are required for each ton of refined chloride. The power employed in the mines is almost exclusively electric, and there are only two shafts equipped with steam engines. The electric power is received at Mulhouse. The salts of Stassfurth are less rich in potash on the average than the Alsatian. Moreover, they contain a heavy percentage of magnesium chloride, which is very harmful to plant development and must therefore be eliminated. This elimination complicates the refinement process. Owing to its magnesium chloride content, the German potash salt cannot be used directly on the fields like the potash of Alsace.

From Germany the following has been received: The summer season of 1921 finds the potash monopoly beset by a business stagnation so aggravated by lack of both foreign and domestic orders that some plants are being forced to close down, while the Potash Syndicate, at its June meeting announced that sales during JanuaryMay were 150,000 metric tons short of those in 1920. The chief factors generally viewed as contributing to the situation are: 1, lack of orders from Germany's best customer, the United States; 2, loss of the potash deposits of Alsace and resulting competition in foreign markets; 3, continued prohibition of export to Poland and through Poland to the east; and 4, curtailment of domestic consumption. Stocks of German potash in

warehouses in the United States are considered adequate for the time being, and the American Industry developed by the war is regarded as independent, to some extent, of German production. Figures published by the Federal Statistical Bureau point out that while North America imported 248,295 metric tons of pure potash in 1912, imports in 1919 were but 70,129 metric tons.

SODIUM. The condition of chemical industries stimulated by the war, especially outside of the United States, is explained by the following item which was published in August:

The chemical trade in Japan, which flourished exceedingly during the war, has been compelled to undergo extensive readjustment since the armistice, and all companies have suffered a sharp decline in prosperity. As an illustration of this, the soda industry, which increased more than fourfold during the war, may be mentioned. Before the war as much as 80 per cent of the domestic consumption was supplied with overseas goods, and the demand for soda ash is still almost wholly met by imports, but the local production of caustic soda has been increasing yearly since the Russo-Japanese War. output of 5,000,000 pounds in 1906 increased to

The

9,500,000 pounds in 1913; on the other hand, imports increased from 19,400,000 pounds to 23,000,000 pounds in the same period. The position of the industry now is that there is an excess of supplies, cost of production is high while foreign goods come in at prices that prevent either the profitable sale of stocks or continuance of manufacture. The situation is such, therefore, that as European and American industrial circles approach their prewar conditions quotations on caustic soda show signs of returning to prewar figures, so that the Japanese trade must come to an end.

NITROGEN. As has already been indicated, the World War emphasized the fact that no effort should be spared to establish national independence in the production of fertilizer materials. This is especially true in the case of nitrogen, which is not only a valuable fertilizer ingredient, but also an essential element in the manufacture of munitions. Of all the nations involved in the war Germany alone had a sufficient nitrate supply within her borders, but England, France, and Italy are now rapidly perfecting plans to make themselves equally secure in this respect. A recent report issued by the department of Scientific and Industrial Research in London shows that there are 50 plants in the world producing nitrogen with a total capacity of 671,300 metric tons. Of these 12 use the arc process, 35 cyanamide process, and 3 the synthetic ammonia process, but of these the United States has only one plant producing fixed nitrogen in each of these classes, with outputs as follows: arc process 300; cyanamide process, 40,000; and synthetic ammonia process, 8000 metric tons as compared with 4000, 120,000, and 300,000 metric tons by the same processes for Germany. The Secretary of Agriculture in his annual report says that increased interest has been manifested in the United States also in the study of methods of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, and the department, through the Bureau of Soils, has actively coöperated with the War Department in this important field. The production of ammonium sulphate from by-product coke ovens and gas plants has greatly increased, but not sufficiently to meet the demand for fixed nitrogen.

FUEL. Concerning peat, especially that obtained in Ireland, a full account from preliminary reports was given in the YEAR Book for 1920. (See page 134.) In April a formal report issued under the auspices of the British Department of Scientific and Industrial Research was published and from it the following information concerning by-products is obtained:

Account must be taken of the value of the ammonium sulphate obtained as a by-product, and it will then be seen that when the fuel is used in this way peat for power purposes is in a much stronger position to compete with coal than would appear from thermal considerations alone. Since 1 per cent of nitrogen equals 22.4 pounds of nitrogen a ton of anhydrous peat equals 16.3 pounds of nitrogen, a ton of air-dried peat (25 per cent water) and also 1 pound of nitrogen yields theoretically 4.714 pounds of ammonium sulphate, it follows that 1 ton of air-dried peat (25 per cent water) containing 1 per cent nitrogen on anhydrous value would give theoretically 79.2 pounds of ammonium sulphate. If the recovery of the maximum amount of ammonium sulphate to the ton of

peat is the aim rather than the production of the maximum amount of power, an efficiency of 70 per cent is said to be regularly attained in practice. From the conclusions arrived at by the Fuel Research Board it is estimated that from the one peat area to be exploited in Ireland 100,000 tons of air-dried peat can be obtained each year, and can be sold at 5s. to 6s. a ton at a factory not more than three miles from the bog site. The board recommends the establishment of electric power stations at the bogs and the ultimate reclamation of the peat-denuded area.

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Encouraging reports continue to be received showing the satisfactory results obtained in the use of peat as a fuel on Swedish railways, and in evidence of that fact a recent report from the Railway Board of Sweden says that it has taken over the specially constructed plant at Hästhagen bog near Vislanda, with a capacity of 30,000 tons a year and which cost 975,000 crowns. entirely new method of treating peat on a large scale has been adopted. All the machinery in use, invented and constructed by the engineer in charge, appears to be so well adapted for the purpose that the conversion of peat into a cheap and effective fuel requires only a small working force. The peat is dried in the open air as far as possible. Only the hardest and driest lumps are used for ordinary fuel, the remainder being converted into powder or briquets. The plant was originally intended for the manufacture of peat powder only, but it was found that briquets were so well adapted for fuel that both are now being made. The discovery has also been made that powdered peat becomes a dangerous explosive when subjected to high temperature.

MOTOR FUEL. Search for an inexpensive motor fuel continues in Great Britain and in an official report issued in January, 1921, it was said of gasoline that supplies are being outstripped by the demand; that control is concentrated in the hands of two worldwide combines; and, further, that there is urgent necessity for action to meet the present crisis. The combinations mentioned are alleged to own the bulk of the distributive machinery, so that nothing less than governmental action can affect the situation. Concerning other fuels or sources of power to be substituted, the report says:

Benzol.-In view of the recent abandonment of the gas standard, there should be a statutory obligation on all gas companies, above a certain size, completely to extract the benzol from their gases. Shale oil. The development of existing shale-oil fields should be encourgaged by the Government. Power alcohol.-It is not suggested that it will be commercially possible to manufacture power alcohol in Great Britain. It can, however, and should be made on a very large scale in the tropical and subtropical parts of the Empire. Electricity. This form of power offers some advantages for town use, but cannot be counted on as an immediate factor in materially reducing the demand for gasoline. Gas. There are types of portable 'gas producers" for vehicles which have already passed beyond the experimental stage. Their use should be extended, more particularly for transport lorries, agricultural machinery, and omnibuses. This form of power would appear to be immediately; available and opens up the most hopeful avenue of speedy relief. Steam vehicles.-There are

several efficient types of steam-propelled vehicles burning coke with a small admixture of coal. These are capable of being usefully employed for long-distance journeys and their extended use is to be desired. When considering alternative fuels, such as benzol and power alcohol, it must be realized that any such substitution will necessarily fail to reduce the price of liquid fuels, unless it includes transport and distribution under some effective form of government control.

With regard to industrial alcohol, a report presented at the meeting of the British Association said with regard to the enormous quantities of waste cellulose material which are produced annually all over the world, certain difficulties have to be overcome. It has to be borne in mind that these sources of alcohol are generally found in inaccessible regions and it was intimated that the initial difficulty of transport has not hitherto received sufficient consideration. Work is proceeding in other directions. In England attempts are being made to utilize the cellulose present in artichoke stalks. In France, experiments are in progress in connection with a tuberous plant which grows in the Andes at an altitude of 6000 feet and has a sugar content comparing favorably with mangolds. The possibility of dealing with cellulose on lines parallel to the Borland process is also being considered.

A series of experiments begun in 1914, but interrupted by the war, have been resumed in Brussels, Belgium, on the use of palm oil in internal combustion motors. The question of motor fuel in the Belgian Kongo is a serious one, since a ton of crude oil delivered at Kainshasa has an estimated price of 2000 francs, as against 1050 francs in Brussels. Palm oil, on the other hand, costs on the native market an average of 25 centimes a kilo, but varies in price between 8 and 40 centimes. The calorific power of palm oil is from 20 to 25 per cent less than that of crude oil, so that a relatively larger consumption of palm oil must be reckoned with, while the comparatively high temperature at which palm oil fuses (37° C.) indicates the possibility of rapidly clogging the motor. According to engineers closely connected with the experiments, without constructing a special palm-oil motor, it was necessary to find a machine in which complete combustion is assured by a complete vaporization of the fuel, which should be introduced in a quantity strictly proportionate to the load. It was further essential that the gaseous mixture should be constant, and capable of regulation by a supply of water, varying according to the load and the amount of oil being fed in. Thorough clearing of the exhaust gases was also a requisite. The Belgian colonial company found a two-cycle semi-Diesel motor of Swedish manufacture, developing 10 horsepower at 500 revolutions a minute, that satisfied these conditions, and motors of larger and smaller sizes of the same character have been run on palm oil with good results without special changes for the use of the new fuel. According to analyses by Belgian chemists, palm oil is a mixture of glycerin palmitate and oleate, with some variable quantities of palmitic and oleic acid. It contains about 95 per cent of fatty acids and appears as a pasty substance of yellowish or salmon color. Its calorific power is estimated at 9228 calories and it is inflammable at 210° C. It thus possesses the ad

vantage of being widely grown and easily obtainable, of large calorific power in small volume, of safety in handling, and of having no damaging effects on machinery in which it is used. From Brazil comes the information that the current high price of gasoline has led very largely to the consideration of replacing it by alcohol, which is readily obtained as a by-product on the various plantations. It is reported that in Pernambuco there are approximately 80 modern cane-sugar factories, which have about 800 miles of railway, of from .75 to 1 metre gauge, operated by wood-burning locomotives. The fuel problem is becoming a serious one and as a result the sugar-mill operators are turning their attention to the matter of reducing wood consumption and finding substitutes. Consequently great interest is being shown in the substitution of alcohol, which is produced in large quantities on the sugar plantations from the molasses finals. Pernambuco has recently adopted the use of alcohol to which 5 per cent gasoline has been added as an automobile fuel. The manufacturers are interested in using their own inexpensive product for their railways. The current price of alcohol is about $0.22 a gallon, but the cost to the producer is much less. Some of the planters who have been using the alcohol made on their plantations for automobile fuel have found that pure alcohol of from 41 to 42 degrees satisfactorily answers the requirements of automobile motors, but that it is advisable to make a slight alteration in the carburetor. cohol destroys the varnish on cork floaters, and it has been found necessary to substitute metal ones. Users of alcohol fuel have reported that they note no diminution in the power of the motor or its hill-climbing capacity, and that the amount of alcohol consumed is practically the same as the amount of gasoline.

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A strong movement is taking place in Cuba to replace gasoline with alcohol as the motive power for self-propelled vehicles. This has assumed such proportions that the drivers of alcohol-propelled light automobiles for hire have petitioned the authorities in Havana to lower the standard rate, as they find that they can reduce existing charges one-third and still make a profit. The alcohol is produced from the waste of sugar and is a Cuban product. While the average cost of gasoline at present in Havana is 50 cents a gallon, that of alcohol varies between 30 and 35 cents.

In South Africa Natalite and Acetol alcohol mixtures continue to be used. The manufacture of another alcohol mixture, "Penrol," will be begun shortly. Alcohol will be derived from maize or mealies (corn), which is one of the largest crops in the country. It is intended to put up a plant with a yearly capacity of 1,000,000 gallons. Among the drawbacks to the development of these alcohol fuels is that the price of alcohol in Europe is so high that it is more profitable to sell the product there than to denature it for motor spirit for sale in South Africa.

Prof. G. Schroeter of Berlin, Germany, announces his discovery of a process to transform naphthalin into tetralin for use as a fuel for automobiles.

DYESTUFFS. Only one item of interest can be presented under this heading. There has developed during the year a widespread complaint against the lack of fastness of dyes in piece goods. A committee of experts was named in September