Under former steam operation such trains could not be carried over a 1.5 per cent grade at a speed greater than about nine miles an hour. The electric locomotives negotiated such grades at 29 miles an hour.

Another important railway project discussed during the year had as its aim to connect Brazil and Paraguay making the latter country independent of Argentina for outlet to the Atlantic. In addition the new railway would open the Paraguayan market to the Paulista manufacturing interests of Brazil and create a stronger current of trade between that country and the northeastern provinces of Argentina. A bill was introduced in the Brazilian Congress granting to the state government of either São Paulo or Paraná a concession to build a line from Santa Cruz to Rio Pardo, the terminus of one of the lines of the Sorocobana railway system, to some point on the Rio Paraná between the Guayra Falls and the mouth of the Iguassu, and also to build another connection from Guarapuva to some point on the main line to be constructed, thus offering another outlet by way of Curytiba to the Atlantic at Paranagua. This concession would carry with it a subsidy of $44,000 a mile and if neither state cared to take advantage of the plan it would be offered to the highest bidder, and failing offers by private interests, the government would construct the line.

A connection thus effected between São Paulo and Corrientes would offer an economy of 684 miles over the existing roundabout route by Buenos Aires, and would soon correct the unfavorable trade balance suffered by Brazil in its commerce with Argentina. There are several different schemes being advanced by the various promoters, and it was considered possible that the bill might be altered before it was finally enacted.

SHIPPING. The merchant shipping of Brazil comprises 588 steamships of 433,000 tons and 55 sailing vessels of 17,920. In that year 23,126 vessels entered with a tonnage of 17,954,320 and 23,170 cleared with a tonnage of 17,946,010.

POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS. In 1920 the post offices numbered 3,696. In 1919 there were 54,536 miles of telegraph line.

GOVERNMENT. Executive power is vested in the President, elected directly by the people for four years and ineligible for the succeeding term. Along with him the Vice-President is elected in the same manner. Legislative authority is vested in the National Congress, which consists of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate has 63 members elected by direct vote for three years and the Chamber of Deputies, 212 members elected by direct vote for three years on the basis of proportional representation. The President in 1921 was Dr. Epitacio de Silva Pessoa elected for the term 1918-22 and the VicePresident, Francesco Alvaro Bueno de Paiva.

Measures toward improving relations between Brazil and Paraguay were being taken in the latter part of the year. Conferences were held between the secretaries of state of both countries and plans were under discussion for the hastening of the construction of the railway from Santos to Asuncion which would supply the capital of Paraguay with a direct rail route to the Atlantic; also a measure for wireless communication between Rio de Janeiro and Asuncion. See NAVAL PROGRESS.

BREAD. See FOOD AND NUTRITION.
BRECHTSEN, A. L. See NECROLOGY.
BREEDING. See LIVE STOCK.
BREEDING PLANTS. See BOTANY.

BREMER, ALEXANDER. American violinist, died in New York, January 5. He was born in Copenhagen, Jan. 15, 1850, and came to the United States in 1867. For more than twenty years he played in some of the larger symphony orchestras, and for twelve years served as president of the Musical Mutual Protective Union. BRETHREN, CHURCH OF THE. A religious denomination, commonly known as "Dunkers"; organized in 1708 at Schwarzenau, Germany. It comprised in 1921 a total of 1014 churches with total membership of 108,936. There are 3551 ministers. Foreign mission work is carried on in Denmark, Sweden, China, and India, with a mission in Africa in contemplation for 1923. Workers in foreign fields in 1921 numbered 120. Of these, 13 are at present on furlough, 7 were appointed in 1920, and 5 in 1921. The work of home missions is carried on through the medium of 48 district boards. Receipts for missionary work for the year amounted to $295,384.52; for other relief work $142,238.95; 1921 marked the second year of the Five-Year Movement in the church. The programme consists of general expansion in membership, missionary, and educational fields. The denomination maintains ten colleges with total enrollment in 1921 of 2397 students. The enrollment of the Sunday Schools was 107,808. There are more than 1200 schools and twelve thousand officers and teachers. The headquarters of the various church boards are located in Elgin, Ill., including the General Mission Board, General Educational Board, General Sunday School Board, General Christian Workers Board, Temperance Board, General Relief Committee, and the Peace Committee. The publishing house is also at Elgin, Ill. The official organ of the denomination is the Gospel Messenger.

BRETON LANGUAGE. See PHILOLOGY, MODERN.

He

BRIAND, ARISTIDE. Prime Minister of France, assumed office January 16. He was born in 1863 and after studying law devoted himself to journalism and politics. During the early part of his political career he was known as a Socialist of radical tendencies and accused of revolutionary aims, as well as of violent anti-clericalism. was elected to the Chamber in 1902 as a SocialistRadical. His first important appointment was that of Minister of Education in 1906 and as such it was his duty to carry into effect the law of separation of church and state. To the surprise of his critics he showed great tact and moderation in the execution of this measure, with the result that little friction ensued. On July 23, 1909, he succeeded M. Clemenceau as Prime Minister and held office until February, 1911. It was during this administration that he dealt in summary fashion with the great railway strike which threatened to bring the whole industrial life of the country to a standstill. He resorted to the simple expedient of calling to the colors the railwaymen as reservists. The other cabinets of which he was successively Prime Minister down to that of 1921, were: Jan. 21, 1913, to March, 1913, and Oct. 29, 1915, to Dec. 12, 1916. In politics Briand has always been regarded as one of the strong men of

France and there has been a popular acceptance of his own description of himself as a "tenacious Breton." He has also won great renown for his eloquence as a public speaker. The policy as announced by the new Prime Minister involved the following points: Disarmament of Germany and the execution of the Treaty; payment by Germany of her just dues to France; execution of those aims in close union with England and the other Allies; nonintercourse with the Russian Soviet government but abandonment of aggressive Anti-Bolshevist campaigns; the maintenance of a strong army but with a reduced period of military service; return to normal conditions of finance, agriculture, and industry; reconstruction of the devastated regions along the lines of decentralization; prompt relief of unemployment; recognition of war victims as first creditors of the nation; in general, an appeal to the stable majority of the nation as against the extremists on either side. BRICKS. The average price per unit in all kinds of ware except vitrified brick increased considerably more in 1920 than in 1919. Common brick increased in price 35 per cent; face brick, 34 per cent; hollow building tile, 47 per cent; vitrified brick or block, 18 per cent; and fire brick, 22 per cent. The average increase in price in all these wares from 1916 to 1920 was 124 per cent. The structural clay products as a whole (mainly brick and tile) produced in 1920 were valued at $147,540,000, or 57 per cent of the total of all brick and tile products, as compared with $102,850,000 in 1919 and $66,209,300 in 1918. Engineering products (vitrified brick, sewerpipe, and draintile) rose in value from $37,800,000 in 1919 to $47,340,000 in 1920, or 18 per cent of the total brick and tile products. Refractories (fire brick and stove lining) increased in value from $36,900,000 in 1919 to $53,640,000, or 21 per cent of the total. Miscellaneous products constituted 4 per cent of the total value in 1920. Common brick was the leading product in quantity and value in 1920, as it had always been except in 1918, when, on account of war restrictions and the unusual demand for fire brick, common brick was relegated to second place in value. The output in 1920 was 4,709,000,000 brick, an increase of 156,333,000 brick over the output in 1919. Not withstanding this gain the output of 1920 was the smallest recorded by the Survey except the output of 1919 and that of 1918 and was less than one-half as large as the maximum, which was in 1906. The value of this product, $81,330,000, was the highest recorded and represented an increase of $23,110,000 over 1919. This was the largest gain recorded by a clay product in 1920. The average price per thousand in 1920, $17.27, was also the highest recorded. In 1919 the average price was $12.79.

BRIDGES. In 1921 there was active discussion and preparation of plans for long spans and important bridges generally, as well as a certain amount of minor construction. At New York, Philadelphia, Detroit, and elsewhere large projects were discussed and furthered. These aroused the interest of engineers as well as the general public and their discussion was followed with more than ordinary concern. An important discussion of the year was presented before the Philadelphia Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers by Gustav Lindenthal on Nov. 7, 1921, in which he not only referred

to the Delaware River bridge, mentioned below, but discussed long-span bridge design in general, having been a leading worker in this field in American bridge work. This paper slightly condensed was published in Engineering-NewsRecord (New York), Nov. 24, 1921, p. 861, vol. 87, and contained a remarkable outline of longspan bridge fundamentals worthy of consideration in connection with Mr. Lindenthal's own designs as well as others under course of development. DELAWARE RIVER BRIDGE. The Delaware River Bridge Commission, composed of the interstate bridge commissions of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, on June 23, 1921, approved the recommendations made by the board of engineers appointed in October, 1920, and consisting of Ralph Modjeski, chairman, George S. Webster, and Laurence A. Ball. The commission adopted the Franklin Square location, as against the Spring Garden Street and Washington Square locations advocated by various interests. The first named location, it stated, was the most suitable to "convey traffic to its desired destination with economy and directness." The commission also approved the adoption of the suspension bridge design, and provided for the organization of the Engineering Staff for the immediate preparation of contract plans.

The city council of Philadelphia later made the necessary appropriation of money for construction, which was necessary to legalize further steps in construction. The States Pennsylvania and New Jersey also had appropriated sums to cover their contributions to the cost of the bridge, the amount required from the State of New Jersey bring estimated at $2,500,000.

The design of the suspension bridge as reconmended provided for a central span of 1750 feet, or 150 feet longer then the longest existing suspension bridge. The distance from anchorage to anchorage was 3536 feet and the total length of the bridge structure including approaches was 8126 feet. The central span was at a height of 135 feet above high water for a distance of 800 feet. The suspension type was selected after a careful consideration of both cantilever and arch types, and the governing considerations in its adoption were a comparison of tests, greater ease and safety of erection, and a shorter time required for construction.

Inasmuch as there was a distance of 1690 ft. between pierhead lines or 1750 ft. between pier centres at the Franklin Square location, and arch construction was not deemed feasible on account of the depth of rock, only suspension and cantilever structures were considered. The suspension bridge was very much lighter, and was considered to involve less risk in construction, as well as to be adapted to subdivision of contracts. Then also it would require less time to build, and would be cheaper in maintenance on account of having less metal exposed. Furthermore detail designs and comparative cost estimates showed a difference of $1,986,000 in favor of the suspension bridge. For the cantilever bridge the computed weight of metal was 47,000 tons as compared with 33,000 tons for the suspension bridge, though for the latter more costly material and more expensive anchorages were required.

The engineers estimated the total cost of the suspension bridge design at the site chosen as

$22,479,000 for construction and $6,392,000 for the acquiring of the necessary real estate. In the construction cost were included $13,355,000 for the main bridge, $6,468,000 for the approaches, plazas, sewer and grade revision, and $2,656,000 for engineering administration and contingencies. It was the belief of the engineering board that the bridge could be completed by July 4, 1926, the 150th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.

The Delaware bridge of course was for vehicular traffic and after due consideration of the volume and density of such traffic it was concluded that six vehicular lanes should be provided on the bridge, each of 912 ft., making a total width between curbs of 57 ft. Two car tracks in each direction were also provided, outside of the 57-ft. roadway; and two 10-ft. pedestrian ways were considered necessary, the latter being placed above on the upper lateral bracing.

The two towers were to be solid built steel posts bearing the cables firmly attached to their saddles (instead of having movable saddles on rollers) following the practice in the Manhattan Bridge across the East river at New York. The cross-section of each post increases from 7x12 ft. at the top to 7x40 ft. at the base.

The towers support two main cables spaced 89 feet from each other, as such an arrangement was considered preferable to four cables. Consequently there were required 30-in. cables, which represent a large increase over the 1534-in. cables of the Brooklyn bridge, or even the 18 5/8-in. and 2012in. cables of the Williamsburgh and Manhattan bridges. Each cable was to be made up of 16,500 parallel wires, 0.192 in. diameter.

The hangers are spaced about 20 ft., and consist each of four 25/8-in. galvanized wire ropes attached to a cast-steel saddle. A short panel length was considered desirable for the stiffening trusses (20.5 ft for main span, 20.75 ft. for side spans). The trusses were of simple triangular web system, were continuous across the span, and were supported at the towers by stiff hangers. There was a simple steel floor system, including a concrete slab roadway structure with wood block paving, and open tie floors for the railway tracks. The pavement, the only inflammable material in the bridge, rests on concrete slabs.

Inasmuch as local conditions required that the anchorages be placed considerable distance back of the towers, suspended side spans were adopted, whose length was fixed at slightly less than half the main span. The sag of the cables was set at two hundred feet, as the most desirable compromise between increased cost of towers and increased stresses in stiffening trusses, cables, and anchorages.

For the main parts of the structure highstrength alloy steel was selected, and high-carbon steel wire for the cables and hangers of the suspension bridge design. In the design a unit stress of 72,000 lbs. per square inch in the cable wires was considered permissible under the emergency live loading and 60,000 lbs. under normal full loading. The plans for the bridge received the formal approval of the Secretary of War and Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army, on Sept. 26, 1921. The plans duly carried out the conditions previously imposed when it was stated that a clearance of 135 ft. above mean high water and a span with piers outside the pierhead lines, would be acceptable.

Work straightway began in earnest, the commission starting in to begin acquisition of the property required for the approaches by condemnation. During the autumn the plans for the caissons and masonry of the two river piers of the bridge were completed and bids were called for. These piers as designed measured 70x143 ft. at the base and required for both some 62,000 cu. yd. of masonry. They were to be granite faced down to a point below low water level. The borings made at the site of the two piers showed rock at from El.-58 to El.-73 on the Philadelphia side and from El. -80 to El.-90 on the Camden side. Eleven bids for building the two main piers were received by the Joint Commission on Dec. 19. Lump-sum bids had been asked for, based on sinking the Philadelphia caisson to El.-62 and the Camden caisson to El. -86, with some excavation below cutting edge and some rock left above cutting edge. The totals ranged from $1,669,275 to $2,553,000, the average being $2,138,279.

DETROIT-WINDSOR BRIDGE. During the year announcement was made of the proposed design for the eight-cable suspension bridge with span 1803 feet centre to centre of towers, to be built across the Detroit river. There was proposed a suspension bridge with unloaded backstays having two decks for railway and highway traffic respectively. The plan proposed that the highway deck carried from four cables should be built first and put in service, while later the extra cables and stiffening truss capacity required for the railway deck could be added. The bridge would have a minimum height of 110 feet at the centre of the channel and at either end there would be approach spanes of 925 feet length. The towers of steel were to rise to a height of 330 feet. There would be four railway tracks on the lower deck, and two trolley tracks and two 28-foot roadways as well as two 7-foot sidewalks on the upper. The exceptionally heavy loading was duly considered and it was for this reason that eight cables were required, of course the long span also being a governing factor. Six of the eight cables were to be 21 inches in diameter and contain 7980 parallel wires, each of .192 inch diameter, while the two lower outside cables were to be of 18 inches with 6700 wires. The cables were to be continuous from anchorage to anchorage. The preliminary design was prepared by Charles E. Fowler, chief engineer, while the plans were under consideration by an advisory board of engineers. The necessary_authority from Congress and the Dominion Parliament for erection of the bridge and suitable charters had been secured, so that the companies organized to promote the work were in a position to act in the near future.

PROPOSED HUDSON RIVER BRIDGE. During the year 1920 the interests concerned in the development of the project for a bridge across the Hudson river from New York City to New Jersey on designs prepared by Gustav Lindenthal and outlined in the YEAR BOOK for 1920 were active in their efforts, but comparatively little of a positive or definite nature was accomplished save in the way of further engineering and development studies and arousing increased interest in this scheme and endeavoring to correlate it with the much discussed and agitated terminal and port improvement of the City and