Page images
PDF
EPUB

Table 1.1.10-Population and urban area, contiguous 48 States, 1950-90

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

Table 1.1.11-Land-use changes from 1982 to 1992, contiguous 48 States

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small]

1

Numbers in bold indicate the acres that remained in the same use. Nonbold numbers across rows represent land moving out of the 1982 land uses. Nonbold numbers down columns represent land moving into the 1992 land uses.

2 Includes land in the CRP.

3 Includes rural transportation, marshland, and barren land.

4 Distribution by use may not add to totals due to rounding.

5 Prime land is land that has the growing season, moisture supply, and soil quality needed to sustain high yields when treated and managed according to modern farming methods.

Source: USDA, ERS, based on USDA, SCS, 1994.

trusts (see chapter 1.2, Land Tenure, for more discussion).

Conflicts Among Uses of Federal Lands

Nearly 29 percent of the Nation's surface area, some 650 million acres, is owned by the Federal Government (U.S. General Services Administration, 1995). Most of this land is administered by USDA's Forest Service (FS) and the Department of the Interior's Bureau of Land Management (BLM), with lesser amounts by the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and National Park Service.

National Forest System (NFS) lands total 191.6 million acres (table 1.1.12 and USDA, FS, 1996). By law, NFS lands are managed to promote multiple uses. Logging and grazing are the principal commercial activities. The NFS includes about 85 million acres of timberland and 96 million acres of rangeland. FY 1995 production from these resources included 3.9 billion board feet of timber (about 13 percent of the national harvest) and almost 9.3 million animal-unit months (AUM's-1 AUM is forage for a 1,000 lb. cow, or the equivalent, for 1 month) of livestock grazing. Other commercial activities include oil, gas, and mineral production. Recreation and conservation are also major uses. The Forest Service manages over 18,000 recreational facilities within the NFS, along with over 125,000 miles of trails and 4,385 miles of wild and scenic rivers. FY 1995 recreational use of NFS lands exceeded 4 billion visitor hours (USDA, FS, 1996). The NFS also

[blocks in formation]

includes 35 million acres of designated wilderness. Within the continental United States, NFS lands provide habitat for 113 animal species and 87 plant species listed by the Federal Government as threatened or endangered (BioData, Inc., 1995). The NFS also accounts for about one half of the West's water supply (USDA, FS, 1996).

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands total 264 million acres, most of which are in Alaska and 11 Western States (table 1.1.12 and USDI, BLM, 1996). BLM lands are managed for multiple uses, primarily commercial production. The main commercial activity is grazing, with 19,048 grazing permits or leases covering 166.9 million acres in FY 1993 (USDI, BLM, 1996). About 8 million acres of BLM land are classified as timberland. BLM's recreation management efforts target high-use areas that cover about 10 percent of agency lands. These areas contain 4,869 miles of trails and about 2,000 miles of wild and scenic rivers. FY 1995 recreational use of BLM lands was about 880 million visitor hours. As with the Forest Service, BLM has given increasing importance to conservation uses-protecting wetlands and riparian areas, endangered species, and important wildlife habitat. Within the 48 States, BLM lands provide habitat for 61 federally listed threatened or endangered animal species and 77 listed plant species (BioData, Inc., 1995). BLM lands include 5.2 million acres of designated wilderness and 17.4 million acres that are being studied for future designation.

Debate over the use of public lands, particularly those under FS and BLM jurisdiction (that is, those explicitly managed under multiple-use objectives), has become increasingly contentious over the last 20-30 years. Critics argue that FS and BLM give grazing, logging, and mining priority over other land uses (primarily environmental uses but also, to a lesser extent, recreational uses). Federal grazing fees, for example, are generally well below fees charged by private landowners in nearby areas. In 1995, the Federal grazing fee was $1.61 per AUM. For the 11 Western States where BLM and FS lands are concentrated, private land grazing fees (for cattle) averaged $10.30 per AUM (USDA, NASS, 1995a). (See chapter 1.4, Farm Real Estate Values, Rents, and Taxes, for more detail on grazing fees and recent proposals to raise fees on public lands.) Similarly, the FS often pays for construction of access roads, which is a major cost component in bringing NFS lands into timber production. With respect to mining, Federal law allows prospectors to take title to public lands, and the minerals they contain, for as little as $2.50 per acre.

Table 1.1.12-Land-use changes on Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and Forest Service (FS) lands, FY 1983-95

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

Sources: USDA, ERS, based on U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Public Land Statistics (various years) and USDA, Forest Service, Report of the Forest Service (various years).

Commercial users of Federal lands defend existing policies on a number of grounds. Ranchers argue that Federal rangelands are, on average, of lower quality than private rangeland. Ranchers also fear that raising Federal grazing fees would reduce ranch land values because the value of access to Federal lands is capitalized into the value of ranches. Loggers argue that roads into previously inaccessible areas of the NFS provide a stream of future recreation and logging benefits and that these benefits justify their

construction by the Federal Government. The economies of many rural communities, particularly in the West, are heavily dependent on access to Federal lands; reducing this access, it is argued, would increase unemployment in these areas.

In 1995 and 1996, a number of administration and congressional efforts attempted to effect changes in the management of federally owned lands. Whether designed to encourage economic development or

promote conservation objectives, these efforts generally met with stiff opposition, and no major reforms affecting commercial or conservation activities on Federal lands were signed into law.

While the debate over the use of Federal lands is unlikely to be resolved in the near future, elements of the debate have been reflected in land-use patterns. Both NFS and BLM lands saw a marginal decrease in the amount of grazing allowed during 1983-95 (table 1.1.12). Both agencies also sharply decreased their timber sales, largely due to court injunctions brought to address environmental issues, but also reflecting changes in forest management objectives and policy within BLM and FS. Recreation and conservation uses of BLM and FS lands increased significantly between 1983 and 1995. For the two agencies combined, the number of recreational visitor days rose almost 64 percent while the area of designated wilderness expanded 14.6 million acres. There were also significant increases in the number of trail miles and wild and scenic river miles on both FS and BLM lands.

Conflicts With Environmental Preservation

Virtually all of the Nation's 460 million acres of cropland and much of its 591 million acres of grassland pasture and range were once wetlands, forest, native grassland, or some other natural ecosystem. In converting these lands to agricultural uses, many of their environmental goods and services have been damaged or lost. Additionally, incidental consequences of crop and livestock production, such as soil erosion and farm chemical runoff, can stress connected ecosystems. Conservation has become a recurring issue in agricultural policy for two reasons. First, government policies have often encouraged the conversion of natural areas to agriculture and the use of production practices with negative environmental impacts (for example, chemical-intensive monoculture systems). Second, the private benefits of conservation are often insufficient to induce farmers and ranchers to protect natural resources at levels that are optimal from a social perspective. This section briefly discusses five areas where conflicts between agricultural and environmental uses of land are likely to become important policy issues.

Endangered Species. As of September 30, 1995, 663 plant and animal species inhabiting the contiguous 48 States (during at least some part of their life cycle) were listed by the Federal Government as threatened or endangered. Of these species, 380 are listed, at least in part, due to activities typically associated with agriculture (table

1.1.13). Agricultural development (that is, the conversion of land to agricultural production) and grazing threaten the most species, 272 and 171. Exposure to fertilizers and pesticides is a factor in the listing of 115 species. While farm production accounts for the large majority of such listings, some listings are due to nonfarm uses of these chemicals. Of the species listed due to the use of fertilizers and pesticides, 28 have been linked to fertilizers, 85 to herbicides, and 80 to other pesticides.

Competition between agriculture and endangered species for land has heightened due to the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973. The stated purpose of the ESA is to provide a means for protecting ecosystems upon which threatened and endangered (T&E) species depend and to provide a program for the conservation of such species. Several sections of the ESA have important implications for agriculture.

Section 6 prohibits State laws protecting federally listed T&E species from being less restrictive than the ESA. Hence, States have limited ability to grant exemptions to ESA restrictions regardless of compliance costs. Section 7 requires Federal agencies to ensure that actions they fund, authorize, or carry out are not likely to jeopardize the survival of T&E species. Potentially, this brings commodity program participants, users of federally supplied irrigation water, and holders of Federal grazing permits and leases within reach of the ESA. Additionally, Section 11 allows private agents to sue Federal agencies to force their compliance with ESA provisions. This has caused concern that the ESA may be used to restrict pesticide use because these products can be distributed in the United States only if they have been registered or exempted from registration by the Environmental Protection Agency. Finally, Section 9 makes it illegal to take, possess, transport, or traffic in listed animals except by permit; for plants it is illegal to collect or maliciously damage endangered species on Federal lands. For listed animal species then, the ESA can affect land-use decisions on both public and private lands; for listed plant species, it can affect land-use decisions only on Federal lands.

Wildlife Habitat. Agriculture affects the welfare of wildlife populations beyond endangered species. While a few species have adapted well to farm systems (for example, white-tail deer, Canada geese, raccoons, and coyotes), agriculture has negatively impacted most species. Over the last 30 years, habitat loss due to conversion of land to agriculture has reduced wild species numbers more than any other human activity (McKenzie and Riley, 1995). In prairie regions between 1980 and 1989, for example,

Table 1.1.13-Federally listed threatened and endangered (T&E) species in the contiguous 48 States by source of agricultural threat as of September 30, 19951

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

1Table excludes listed marine species and domestic species found only outside the contiguous United States. Some species threatened by nonfarm uses of pesticides and fertilizers are included.

2

Column 2 does not represent the sum of columns 3-7 because many species face more than one threat from agriculture.

3 Conversion of land use to cropland.

4 With respect to agricultural production, the term "pesticides" generally refers to a wide range of chemical compounds that include herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, rodenticides, and fumigants. Herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides account for the large majority of pesticide applications in agriculture.

5 Column 8 does not represent the sum of columns 5-7 because many species are threatened by more than one type of chemical. Source: USDA, ERS, based on data supplied by BioData, Inc., 1995.

populations of grassland-nesting birds declined 25 to 65 percent. Many duck populations have also fallen dramatically. Mallard, winged teal, and pintail populations, for example, have declined 43, 45, and 71 percent since the 1970's.

At the same time, agriculture must be a key component of any national wildlife conservation program. Within the 48 States, the farm sector owns vast quantities of valuable wildlife habitat, including over 60 percent of all wetlands and 38 percent of all forests and woodlands. Agricultural producers also have senior use rights to millions of acre-feet of surface water in the West. Finally, tens of millions of acres of cropland and pasture have high wildlife producing potential and are thus prime candidates for

habitat restoration. Additionally, the success of the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) in enhancing many wildlife populations is promising (see chapter 6.3, Conservation Reserve Program).

Wetlands. In 1780, there were an estimated 221 million acres of wetlands in what is now the contiguous 48 States; a recent estimate is less than 124 million acres (see table 6.5.1 in chapter 6.5, Wetland Programs). Bringing land into agricultural production accounts for more than 80 percent of all wetlands lost since colonial times (U.S. Congress, OTA, 1993). Nearly a third of all wetlands losses have occurred in the farm-intensive States of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin (Dahl, 1990).

« PreviousContinue »