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done is small and the possible loss not large. His factor of safety may be little or nothing with his level of intelligence barely sufficient to accomplish the work. Add to his productive power but a simple machine, and at once the risks are larger and the factor of safety is necessarily increased. With the fully automatic machine the possibilities of spoiling work become so great that the factor of safety must be many times increased; and also the possibility of damage to a machine necessitates a knowledge of the machine many times greater than is likely to be required in any regular work. That this factor of safety is considered in all manufacturing enterprises is well understood by employers. That it is the real measure of the machine operative's intelligence rather than the limited knowledge necessary to pull a lever or place a piece of material in a machine is beyond question.

There appear to have been a great many attempts to define a machine. So far no one seems to be satisfied. May we suggest yet another definition. No doubt we all will consent to the statement that there was a time when there were no tools, and that after the invention of tools a more or less extended period of time elapsed before the invention of a machine. Our problem is, therefore, to determine what differentiates the machine from the tool. This cannot consist in the application of muscle or human energy, for these are essential to the tool, neither can it be the use of intelligence, for this also is essential to the tool. Carrying our analysis yet farther we find that in some cases the intelligence is a constant factor of the movement, directing it to a greater or less degree at all times, as in the use of the hand plane, and that in other cases the intelligence predetermines what is to be done, as in the machine planer or surfacer. In hand planing the attention is constant for the purpose of continuous redirection. In machine planing the attention is for the purpose of seeing that the predetermined movement is properly completed. With the hand plane, to stop the attention is to stop the work. With the machine plane, the work might be completed even if the operator were to remove entirely from the machine.

This illustration is so obvious that more seem unnecessary, although they might be multiplied indefinitely. We, therefore,

have as our definition, A machine is a mechanism which performs a predetermined act. With this definition we can readily place many machines and many tools in their respective classes, yet as is usual with attempts at classifications there will be some on the border line. The hand plow is clearly a tool and the gang plow with sulky is as clearly a machine. The scythe is a tool as is also the cradle and hand rake. Mowers, binders, and drills are machines.

With this definition the thesis becomes incontrovertible that the machine requires a higher type of intelligence than the tool, and the more nearly automatic the machine the greater the intellectual requirement in operating it. We can see no place for any exceptions to this rule, because to predetermine what is to be done requires the knowledge necessary to perform the act with simple tools, and in addition to this the operator must know all that is added by the machine, both as to the proper operation and also as to possible difficulties or errors. In addition to this he must be able to correlate all these factors in such a masterly manner as to insure substantial accuracy in results. These factors reach in our fully automatic machines a degree of intellectual requirement that is utterly beyond the understanding of those who have had no experience in such work.

In general we may assume that as the skill of the hand workman decreases by transfer to the machine, the requirement for scientific knowledge and a higher type of intelligence increases. As the machine relieves the workman of muscular exertion, the demand for intellectual exertion increases. As the machine becomes more perfectly automatic in its action, the controlling intelligence must become more intense and more highly developed, to the end that all factors may be given proper consideration and decisions reached with unerring exactness and promptness.

May we not, from these illustrations, draw the inference that the more intelligence exhibited in these industrial tasks the more simple they appear to those who do not understand the nature of their requirements? Further, in the higher grades of industrial activities, this intelligence reaches a development so far removed from that of other lines of mental effort as to have few if any points of contact with the usual academic lines, and to be consequently unrecognizable by our social scientists.

May we not still further infer that a final analysis of this problem of industrial intelligence may show that it extends downward to the most simple industrial occupations, differing in degree rather than in kind, and that our present discussions of social science, as well as our schemes of education, are dealing only with that comparatively insignificant factor of industrial activities which can be understood because of having some similar elements and points of contact with the usual academic lines, and that because of this misunderstanding little progress is made?

May it not be necessary for us to recognize that the whole field of industry requires a type of mind differing essentially from that of other lines, and as yet almost entirely unrecognized; and that the needs, ambitions, and just rewards due this type require methods of study and measurement in harmony with this type of intelligence?

The screw-machine operative cannot get by on a 75 per cent standard, neither can he prove his efficiency by quoting, or misquoting, authorities. His whole mental attitude must be in harmony with his work, and simply because it differs from that of the more usually considered lines does not necessarily represent any less acquisition or effort or training than others. To this writer it seems no more just to condemn the industrial worker to a lower plane of intelligence because he does not measure up with the standards set for other lines than to condemn other lines to a subordinate place because they cannot measure up if tested by the standards of the industrial worker.

Briefly, man's inhumanity to man is very largely the result of the inability of man to recognize the intelligence and worthwhileness of his fellow-man's labors.

SOCIALIZATION

EDWARD ALSWORTH ROSS
University of Wisconsin

By "socialization" is meant here the development of the we feeling in associates and their growth in capacity and will to act together. The process is affected by a great variety of conditions and circumstances and is not the same for those who never come into personal contact as for members of a primary group.

Sons of the same land gain a capacity of mutual sympathy from the identity of their early impressions from the physical environment. Not that they will love one another-unless they meet homesick in a far country-but when they have to choose between strangers and their countrymen they will prefer the latter. The recurrent unheeded impressions constitute, as it were, the stable background of individual experience. When people discover that they have the same background they are pleased and drawn together.

In "The Native-born" Kipling brings out clearly what it is that tends to make one people of those reared in the same climate and scene. The Australian calls upon his friends to drink

To the hush of the breathless morning
On the thin, tin, crackling roofs,
To the haze of the burned back-ranges
And the dust of the shoeless hoofs-

The Canadian's toast is

To the far-flung fenceless prairie,

Where the quick cloud-shadows trail,
To our neighbor's barn in the offing
And the line of the new-cut rail;
To the plough in her league-long furrow
With the gray Lake gulls behind-

South Africa has characteristic odors as well as sights and sounds. Her son drinks

To the home of the floods and the thunder,

To her pale dry healing blue

To the lift of the great Cape combers,

And the smell of the baked Karroo,

To the growl of the sluicing stamp-head

To the reef and the water-gold.

Still other elements hold the heart of the English bred in India. They drain the cup

To our dear dark foster-mothers,

To the heathen songs they sung—

To the heathen speech we babbled

Ere we came to the white man's tongue.

To the cool of our deep verandas

To the blaze of our jewelled main

It is thus that each land becomes "home" and, however sharp the strife among its sons, they are likely to draw together when an issue arises with an alien people. Here indeed is the primitive strand of nationality.

EMOTIONAL COMMUNITY

From the reminiscences exchanged on an "old settlers' day" it is evident that what linked the hearts of the pioneers was the vivid experiences they passed through together-intense social pleasure at merrymakings and celebrations as well as suffering and anxiety caused by floods, droughts, blizzards, prairie fires, and Indian outbreaks. If foreign-born are interspersed among native settlers such experiences bring them all into sympathetic relations, and then the interchange of ideas gradually assimilates them. It is significant that the non-British immigrants into the American colonies in the eighteenth century were assimilated much sooner when they settled on the Indian-fighting frontier than when they dwelt in groups in the safe seaboard strip.

One may wonder whether one emotion has the same value as another for generating fellow-feeling. It is very likely that the

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