of psychic states involved in appreciation are the motor, emotional, and intellectual types spoken of above. Parallel in the same way with the four degrees in which utilization is carried out are four types of disposition—the aggressive, the instigative, the domineering, and the creative. Thus four types of character come into existence in the process of characterization—the forceful, the convivial, the austere, and the rationally conscientious. The former emphasizes the qualities of courage and power; the convivial is of the pleasure-loving type; the austere is the product of reaction against the excesses of convivial indulgence; while the last is a product of the reaction against and progress beyond the austere type.'

Correlated with the phenomena of the social mind and the form and degree of social constraint is the type of human rational society. Of this there are eight subdivisions: (1) A homogeneous community of blood relatives, among whom the chief social bond is sympathythe sympathetic type. (2) The congenial type, made up of like spirits drawn together by similarity of nature and agreement in ideas. Illustrations of this type are found in the Mayflower band, Latter-day Saints, partisan political colonies, and communistic brotherhood. (3) The approbational type, a community of miscellaneous and sometime lawless elements drawn together by economic opportunity, where a general approbation of qualities and conduct is practically the only social bond. (4) The despotic type, where the social bonds are despotic power and a fear-inspired obedience. (5) The authoritative type, where arbitrary power has identified itself with tradition and religion, and reverence for authority is the social bond. (6) The conspirital type, where intrigue and conspiracy are the social bonds. (7) The contractual type, such as the league of the Iroquois and the confederation of American commonwealths in 1778, where the social bond is a covenant or contract. (8) The idealistic social type, where a population collectively responds to certain great ideals, where the social bonds are comprehension of mind by mind, confidence, fidelity, and an altruistic spirit of social service.2

Democracy and Empire, pp. 317-20.

* Descriptive and Historical Sociology, pp. 11-13.

Into any systematic treatment of the modes and forms of social control Professor Giddings nowhere enters. His genetic rather than functional and analytical standpoint is the reason for such an omission. He recognizes that "a community collectively does things for itself—that is, for its members-and it collectively does things to or upon itself, scrutinizing and determining its membership, scrutinizing and censoring conduct." He recounts the instruments of social control in the state, the municipality, and, in primitive society, the tribe. The influence of custom, of law, of parental authority, of the church, and of various voluntary associations is briefly sketched. The mode of social control is explained in terms of natural selection as one of control of variations from society. In the organic struggle for existence "there is an environmental constraint compelling conformity of organic structure and of life to certain adapted or adaptable types, from which variation is possible only within somewhat definite limits." In group life "human beings instinctively and rationally manifest a dominant antipathy to those variations from type that attract attention." Thus savage and barbarian communities secure a dead uniformity in conduct. By the enforcement and inculcation of customs and traditions, by organized initiation ceremonies, by clan and tribal councils, an undeviating allegiance is secured to the beliefs, habits, and loyalties held essential to the group welfare. "The mores and themistes gather and distribute a social pressure." In civilized society, where obedience-compelling devices are greatly interlaced, they have nevertheless the same end, to "determine, limit, and control variation from type, now extending its range, now narrowing it, and compelling a closer conformity." The method of constraint may be summed up in the one word discipline. In greater detail the methods are described in the following sentence: "By praise and blame, by avoidance and rebuke, by indulgence and license, by penance and fine, by suspension and expulsion, by corporal punishment and maiming, by imprisonment and execution, men are forced to desist, to obey, to help. Their conduct is educated into habits; their efforts are stimulated or goaded to acceptable degrees of intensity and persistence; their characters are

"Social Self-Control," Political Science Quarterly, XXIV, 571. All the quotations in this paragraph are from this article.

moulded to approved types." These particular methods are employed in the "conviction that much conformity to kind or type or standard is essential to security and to co-operative efficiency."

The environmental constraint of nature is not absent in human society. In A Theory of Social Causation Giddings studies the influence of the environment (1) upon the composition of a population as more or less heterogeneous, more or less compound, and (2) through the composition of the population, upon its mental characteristics, its potentialities of co-operation, its capacity for progress, its ideals and its organization as more or less democratic. Nowhere does he trace fully the effect of environmental constraint, but in the Elements of Sociology he establishes a correlation between the degrees of social coercion and the heterogeneity or otherwise of the population. In an extremely heterogeneous community likemindedness may be very slight, and the social organization, under these circumstances, will be coercive (p. 219). Again, in such communities, the nucleus of social organization is some form of personal leadership. Co-operation is based on fear, and the leader's rule is coercive. "In the heterogeneous population," he sums up, "not only does the unlike-mindedness there existing necessitate coercive forms of organization in the manner that has been explained, but also such like-mindedness as there is, taking the sympathetic and conventional form, creates coercive rather than liberal types of organization." While these correlations between degrees of social coercion and the heterogeneity of the population (the latter fact again being correlated with certain types of environment) cannot be accepted as an adequate statement of either the nature or degree of environmental constraint, they do show in what direction Professor Giddings' mind is trending. Probably the most correct statement of his views would be that environmental constraint compels conformity to type. Hence in those communities where the environment itself has been largely responsible for diversity of type the environmental and social constraint will both be greater, the former manifesting itself in a selective death-rate.

On the third problem of the effect of social constraint upon selection, Professor Giddings has given less attention than the subject merits. Nevertheless, scattered throughout his lectures are 1 Elements of Sociology, p. 221.

propositions and views that show the fact that, and, in part, the extent to which, his mind is working on the matter. He recognizes that association, though scarcely anything but involuntary social control, gives advantage in survival. It assists in perpetuating the race, in diminishing the expenditure and waste of energy, and in favoring the growth of intelligence. He holds a view contradictory to that of Fiske in regard to the relation of prolonged infancy to social development. Professor Giddings contends that association stimulated speech and conceptual thought, and these in turn reacted upon mental activity until it became man's dominant interest. A slower development of the individual and a longer infancy resulted. Association favors survival by affording greater power of defense to the group, by affording a longer and more certain food supply, and by making maturity and reproduction of the race more certain. It makes variation more fruitful, and gives survival-value to such social characteristics as toleration, sympathy, and compassion.

By emphasis upon the value of toleration, social constraint modifies selection. In the conflict which precedes the establishment of toleration "the very strong kill off the weak. Then the very strong in turn are overborne by the numerical superiority of the individuals of average power. The majority then left is composed of those that are too nearly equal in strength for one to hope to vanquish another, and they are obliged to live on terms of toleration that make possible the reassertion and renewed activity of the socializing motives." Along with these objective conditions go subjective consequences, the chief of which is an idea of toleration, finding expression in rules of custom, formulating "those enjoyments and immunities that are habitually allowed."3

On its economic side the consciousness of kind standardizes consumption. This in turn widens the market, producing a "consumption economy."4 By diversifying wants and satisfactions, speculation becomes possible and production is increased. In other

1 Principles of Sociology, p. 229.

2 Descriptive and Historical Sociology, p. 315.

3 Principles of Sociology, p. 142.

4 Descriptive and Historical Sociology, p. 386.

words, a standard of living is created, and this, under the production economy of the modern world, determines the extent of wealth production. The chief characteristic of this later economy is a social surplus, which affects selection by making possible the survival of many variants from the type that in the ordinary course of nature would perish.

Society is a selective agent, for social selection converts survival of the fit into the survival of the better. This is both an individual and a social matter. "Social conditions determine for each individual what elements of his personality shall be played upon by the influences that strengthen or weaken; what suggestions shall consciously or unconsciously give direction to his thoughts, quality to his feeling and so, at length, determination to his will." The aim of society is to carry on the process of individuation without endangering race survival. The function of social control is "to increase the practical effectiveness of society as an instrumentality for the protection and improvement of life." The social discipline in which it consists secures the extermination or restraint of the antisocial, and the selection for survival and encouragement of the sympathetic, the intelligent, and the self-controlled. But social pressure, being mainly repressive and destructive, has distinct limits of utility. It curtails variation, limits differentiation, checks spontaneity, restricts individuality, and tends toward rigidity of social organization. There must therefore be a balance between the restraint it imposes upon the antisocial and the freedom it gives to the elements adapted to a social life. If it offers opportunity for the development of individuation without endangering race survival, it has turned the selective struggle of evolution into progress. For "race maintenance and evolution with diminishing cost of individual life, with increasing freedom, power and happiness of the individual person-is progress.

993

The fourth problem of the final consequences of social constraint conceived of as an amount or rate of progress has much more attention given to it. Social constraint, which is to Giddings a form of concerted volition, co-operation, and discipline, is a chief factor in

1 Principles of Sociology, p. 380.

2 Sociology, P. 34.

3 Ibid., p. 36.