has been lost, lay a new foundation for the work of national health in those districts of our country which have been badly hit, and restore those whose power of resistance has, during the war, been reduced.

In addition to the factors which have been indicated as influencing the health of the children-too little cubic space per pupil; bad or no ventilation; overcrowding and resulting insufficient cleaning; the small space for free movement during rest periods; bad lighting; difficulties in procuring for the children a correct working position, particularly when writing; the closing of the school baths; etc., others might be mentioned as having in greater or smaller degree an effect on mental hygiene. First of all, the postponement of the time for study to the afternoonat least every other month as several schools had to be held in the same building—was a particularly unsatisfactory working rhythm. The children's working time becomes difficult to coordinate with that of the home, and for many of the children it is difficult to accustom themselves to do their homework the first thing in the morning instead of in the evening, as usual. Then again it is difficult for them to revert to their ordinary routine. when it is their turn to do so. Finally, under such conditions there is altogether too little free time for many of the children, even in some cases none at all. It must also be remembered that the long distance of school from the home, in Oslo often right across the town, shortens the free time which might otherwise be available when the homework is finished. Consider, further, what the black-out means, both in actual danger, particularly for the girls, and its effect on the nerves both of the children and of their parents who feel the responsibility and hence often live in a constant state of anxiety as to what may happen. The interference of the Hird and the S. S. troops in the schools has many a time justified this anxiety.

No one can doubt that wartime has had a bad effect on the school children's mental health. But in this domain it is, of course, a great deal more difficult than in the physical to obtain a reliable picture of the situation. As is always the case with spiritual conditions, much escapes observation, and it is far from an easy matter, even for the sharpest and most discreet observer, to realize the many details which are of interest in clarifying these conditions. On the whole, it may be said, however, that the state of things is better than might have been expected. But this general characteristic must not mislead one to shut one's eyes to the many pupils who have become mentally debilitated under

the various types of strain caused by these 4 years of war, an there are probably few who today have not drawn upon thei mental reserves. We must also reckon with the fact that th end of the war will bring a general reaction with not insignifican results. Happily nature has great recuperative powers and thi war, like the former world war, has shown what almost incredibl powers of adapting themselves human beings possess. Thus a overwhelming number of children and young people as well a people in the other age-groups have saved their mental soundnes through all their trials. But how far this number will be reduce by the coming events it is impossible to prophesy. The questio as to whether the youth of the country has enough menta reserves to meet the time which still remains before we are free from the foreign and our own tyrants depends essentially o whether it will be possible to avoid a further deterioration in th food situation which would bring with it a lowering in standard of bodily health. It depends also on whether the schools will b spared any further such deep-rooted and all-embracing crises a those into which the Nazi regime forced them during the first years of the occupation. Neither must we forget that the spiritua state of the young is very dependent upon how far the menta state of the home-and the teaching profession-is sound. An the adults in the home and the teachers in the schools are agai dependent on the general conditions in the community and th particular conditions produced by the treatment of our people b the occupation authorities and the conduct of the Germans durin the last phase of the occupation.

YOUTH AND EDUCATION IN OCCUPIED POLAND

If Americans want to realize in full the extent of the destruc tion inflicted on Polish educational life and scientific work, the have to remember that the persecutions in Poland surpass i atrocity and fury anything done by the Nazis in other countries There are several reasons for this.

First, during the first year of war, Poland was the onl occupied country and was therefore submitted to diabolic experi ments, which were later to be applied to other countries.

Secondly, all Polish territory was included by the Nazis int their Lebensraum, and consequently from the very beginning the behavior of the German troops and administration was deliber ately destructive in order to clear the way for further Naz conquests in the East.

Thirdly, the western part of Poland was directly incorporated

o the political system of the Reich, and this act of violence, travening all international laws, meant the total cessation of lish education and the eradication of Polish culture in these tricts.

Fourthly, the occupation of Poland has lasted longer than any other country, and the attitude of the Nazis has not been derated by any kind of compromise, as the people of Poland ve never surrendered and are still offering active resistance the enemy everywhere.

Fifthly, the Germans claimed that Polish people were responble for all the hardships of the war, on the grounds that Poland as the first country which had dared to resist the "peaceful netration" of the Nazis.

Sixthly, all attempts to come to an agreement with Polish ople and to find a Quisling among them failed and this stubrn relentless resistance augmented the German hatred and structive spirit.

Seventhly, Poland was a springboard for the military operaons of the German Army in Eastern Europe, and, therefore, pecial efforts were made to suppress the Polish Underground lovement and all educational influences which might indirectly ave threatened the Nazis' military operations.

To all these factors there must be added the Nazis' growing ar of revenge and the conclusion that the best way to ensure be safety of the Germans from the just vengeance of the Polish eople was to deprive Poland of her fighting spirit and cultural adership, and to destroy or demoralize her young generation.

Immediately after the occupation of Poland, the Nazi Goveror, Frank, declared to the Polish representatives: "In accordance ith the will of our Fuehrer, you are to be a society of peasants Ed workers. We do not need the Polish cultural class, the Reich 28 plenty of her own." Asked for permission to open some 'olish secondary schools, he replied: "The Polish Knechtvolk do ot need any education. Primary schools will be more than nough for you. There will not be any higher schools in Poland. our country must be made an intellectual desert." And he dded: "The Polish people are extraordinarily dull if they do ot understand that Germans' Lebensraum must mean Polish odesraum." (Living space-Death space.)

This line was religiously followed by all Nazi elements. While ilitary operations were still in progress, the Germans delibertely bombed many Polish universities and cultural institutions, ithout any military purpose. Later scientific collections, labora

tories, and libraries were pillaged and laid waste. In Warsaw school equipment was thrown out in disorder and partially seize and carried off by the Germans.

It was of sinister significance that the building of the Ministry of Education became at once the seat of the Gestap and such buildings as escaped became the offices of th Sicherheits-Polizei (Safety Police), and the students' hostels wer turned into police barracks. From the halls which so recent had been serving science and education, orders were issued i the very first week of the occupation abolishing all Polish sciet tific activities. All academic buildings and cultural institution were taken over by the Nazis and given to the Germans' admini tration, or to newly created German schools. As examples ma be quoted, the Mining Academy in Krakow, where the offices the Governor General were installed; the buildings of the Chie School of Architecture, from which 300 chests of books wet carried off; the Chief School of Commercial Sciences; an hundreds of secondary schools. Further damage was inflicted o these buildings while they were being hastily emptied to be read to receive the Army, and ruthlessly adapted to their new us

In their first frantic haste to put all Polish education: establishments out of action, the Nazis only wanted to smash u everything they found in the schools, even such scientific instru ments and books as might have been of use to themselves; th crazy destruction was sometimes evidently against their ow interests. But after a year or so the pillage became mor systematic. Precious equipment was officially confiscated an sent to Germany under the supervision of German scientist All educational and artistic museums and collections were sul mitted to the most ruthless pillage. They were regularly visite by German officials who robbed them of the most valuable object which they later presented as gifts on various state occasion

Any attempt by the Polish people to initiate rescue wor after the cessation of hostilities was rendered impossible. I most cases the Germans prohibited access of the occupied institu tions, confiscated their funds, and refused to afford material o labor for any reconstruction. During 5 years of occupation losse have grown to such an extent that they have created a desperat situation which will require especially strong measures durin the period of reconstruction. The damage will, of course, in man cases be irreparable.

As regards libraries, the following is worth noting. In 1940 an order was issued to withdraw from circulation about 3,00

different Polish books. This long list has since reached Great Britain, and it made most interesting reading, showing what the Reich considered as dangerous for their political plans. The list comprised, besides the works of the great patriotic writers of the 19th and 20th centuries, numerous works by English or French writers translated into Polish. For instance, all works of Joseph Conrad were condemned; the whole Polish historical literature was mutilated; and the withdrawal was also ordered of all books dealing with the "incorporated" territories. Even the great Polish astronomer, Nicholas Copernicus, found himself on the index. If an anthology or a collective edition comprised any of the forbidden works, the order was to cut them out. The order was thoroughly carried out, and practically deprived Polish school children of all textbooks, as private possession of these books was also forbidden. The Nazis took advantage of any excuse for destroying libraries of all kinds.

All teachers in Poland have been relentlessly persecuted. Hostages were often chosen from among them, and they were also frequently victims of mass executions. Secret Nazi instructions gave orders to deprive Poland of her intelligentsia by any means available. Teachers of secondary schools were not allowed to continue their work. Special attention was paid to the professors of Polish colleges and universities. Hundreds of them were arrested and sent to concentration camps. Their living conditions were indescribable; every day they were subjected to tortures. They were systematically beaten, and some of them were constantly bleeding from the blows they had received. Priests and professors of Jewish origin were shut up with criminals. In these circumstances there was a heavy death toll Among the professors, and it is known that more than 200 died. We must also take into account that many teachers were killed on the field of battle. The Polish Underground authorities estimate that about 50 percent of all Polish teachers must be considered as lost to the profession. Moreover, there has been 10 possibility of training young teachers during the war years. Thus Polish schools are facing a very difficult situation in the

post-war years.

The problem of the discussion of curriculum changes for Polish schools is much simplified as most of them were closed. All universities and colleges were liquidated. In the "incorporated" districts any tuition in Polish was prohibited. In the 80-called "General Gouvernement," teaching was allowed to Incorporated into the Reich.

Eastern Poland with Warsaw as the seat of government.