abroad to enrich their preparation and experience, together with the recent salary increases awarded, have greatly stimulated efforts toward selfimprovement.

Secondary school teachers.-Teachers in the official or public (fiscal) secondary schools (liceos) are prepared in the Pedagogical Institute of the University of Chile or are professional men-physicians, lawyers, engineers who devote up to 3 hours a day to teaching. These latter have had some university training, most of them holding a higher degree. Further requirements include good health and upright moral character.

Prior to 1934 secondary school teachers were selected from candidates who had completed the secondary school course and either 4 subsequent years of study in the Pedagogical Institute or 3 in the School of Physical and Technical Education, both in the University of Chile.2 The University of Concepción also offered teacher-education courses in Spanish, French, and English. A reform in 1934 resulted in the establishment in the University of the Higher Institute of Humanities (Instituto de Humanidades Superiores) in addition to the above-mentioned institutions.

Today, preparation of secondary school teachers (profesores de Estado) consists of 5 years of university-level work in the Higher Institute of Humanities, a dependent of the University Faculty of Philosophy and Education, and 2 years of specialized education in the Pedagogical Institute, the Institute of Physical and Technical Education, the School of Fine Arts, the School of Applied Arts, or the Conservatory of Music. These 2 years of professional preparation may be taken concurrently with the last 2 years of study in the Higher Institute of Humanities, the student receiving practical and theoretical instruction in secondary school subjects and subject groups. Admission is limited by the University Council, which annually determines the number of openings in each subject. For certif cation as a State teacher (Profesor de Estado) the student is required to submit an original thesis in addition to satisfactory completion of his course work and practice teaching. Promotion of secondary school teachers is based, as in the case of elementary teachers, on seniority, education, and opportunity.

For the private secondary schools there are no established regulations concerning teacher qualifications. Some teachers hold the secondary school title (profesor de estado); some are members of religious organizations or brotherhoods; some have only elementary school teaching certificates, and > some hold teaching certificates or college or university degrees from foreign institutions.

Improvement of secondary school teachers in service.-The Department of Secondary Education in the Ministry of Public Education is placing great emphasis on the improvement of the teacher. In the pedagogical division a form (hoja de servicios) has been prepared for recording the professional qualifications of secondary school teachers. This form covers: Individuation-name, birthday, nationality, marital status, and professional degrees or titles; economic situation-present position and school, hours per week by subject, administrative duties and hours devoted to them, subjects and hours devoted to private instruction and names of school or schools, other public administration service, other nonteaching activities; services date of entrance to official school service, most recent appointment, years of private-school teaching, years of public-school teaching and in which levels, etc.; personal conditions and social activities-special studies in or out of Chile, foreign languages spoken or read, other intellec

2 The institutions in which secondary school teachers are prepared are discussed under Higher Educa

tual activities or specialized work, Government assignments of any kind in or outside of Chile, publications of any kind-original or translations, addresses delivered, extension or advanced courses developed or pursued, membership and activities in clubs and organizations; other activities(not already given); aspirations-transfer to another position, increase in rank, income, etc. With the aid of this form, the information necessary for evolving a service scale (escalafón) has been collected by the Ministry and is already in use in connection with the competitive examinations for new teachers, transfers, and promotions.

A further indication of the interest in teacher improvement is seen in the encouragement, through scholarships, of teachers to enroll for seasonal courses in the National University. The Department of Secondary Education has enlisted the collaboration of the Pedagogical Institute, where its teachers are prepared, in the study of means of improving their initial effectiveness. And the pedagogical division of the Department, by order of the Director General, has stimulated scientific, philosophic, and professional study on the part of the teachers by providing bibliographies and publishing the most outstanding papers in the Secondary Education Bulletin, a publication of the Department.

Vocational school teachers.-Vocational schools (p.62) are regarded as secondary schools in Chile. Like the normal schools, they offer the academic instruction common to the first cycle of the liceo, and the teachers for this aspect of their offering hold the secondary school teacher license (profesor de Estado). For the definitely specialized technical courses the title or degree from a school of arts and trades or from an engineering school is required. For the shop work, specialists in the respective trade or craft who either conduct their own business or work in another private factory or shop, are employed. In the recently founded School of Industrial Engineering elective courses are offered for in-service improvement in this field.

Teachers' salaries, retirement, pensions, and insurance.-Chilean teachers receive certain basic salaries according to the type of school in which they teach, with quinquennial increases of 20 percent until the original salary is doubled. A law of September 21, 1943, provides for compulsory increases in the basic annual salaries of public-school teachers and of the administrative and other personnel under the Ministry of Public Education. Because of the enormous increase in the cost of living-236 percent more than in 1929, as compared with only 80 percent increase in teachers' salaries basic salaries were raised from 900 pesos monthly to 1,400 pesos for elementary teachers and from 750 pesos basic annual salary per weekhour of teaching to 1,000 pesos for secondary teachers. An additional 60 pesos is allowed monthly for wife, mother, and each child.

Although the teachers did not fully attain their demands, the new law presents a promising outlook for the profession. Article 15 renders its provisions retroactive to the opening of school year 1943. Article 8 provides a 75 percent bonus over the new salary rate for teachers, administrators, and other education personnel in the distant Provinces of Aysen and Magallanes. Article 13 provides for the payment of 300 pesos per pupil in average attendance in private free schools of the Society of Elementary Schools whose teaching and administrative personnel are included in the insurance law of the National Social Insurance Fund of Public Employees and Journalists by a law of September 30, 1942. The new education law authorized the President to contract loans, issue notes, or procure bank advances to a total of 145,000,000 pesos for the effective operation of the law.

After 30 years of service the teacher may retire with full pay, provided he has reached the age of 50 years. Retirement with fewer years of service entitles the teacher to an annual pension based on the number of years taught. Twelve years of service, for example, gives a monthly pension equal to twelve-thirtieths of the monthly salary received. Through monthly deductions of 10 percent of his salary, he receives various benefits from the Public Employees' Fund, among which are personal emergency loans, loans for the purchase of property, life insurance to an amount equivalent to 11⁄2 years' salary, and allowance for his widow and orphans. All teachers of public schools, including the uncertificated, receive the same basic salary and enjoy the same benefits. Principals receive more than teachers, and first-class school teachers receive more than second- and third-class. Pensions of the personnel of the Ministry of Public Education and of the University of Chile who retired prior to the date when the law of 1943 became effective, were increased in the following proportions: On the first 3,000 pesos annual pension, 100 percent; from 3,000 to 9,000 pesos annual pension, 50 percent; from 9,000 to 15,000 pesos annual pension, 30 percent. Six thousand pesos is now established as the minimum annual pension.

Chilean teacher associations.-Chile's teacher organizations have wielded considerable influence both in and out of the teaching profession. The Chilean Teachers Union (Unión de Profesores de Chile-UPCH) is a national organization of union character that dates back to the early 1920's, although it bears this name only since 1935. It is primarily an elementary teacher group, but among its members are large numbers of representatives of all educational levels from kindergarten through university. In 1944, membership was approximately 5,000. An entrance fee and monthly dues of from 3 to 5 pesos are collected, and the organization receives a subsidy of 10,000 pesos a year from the city of Santiago. Anti-democratis elements may not join.

The Chilean Teachers Union is a branch of the Federation of Chilean Workers (Confederación de Trabajadores de Chile-CTC). There is a central directive council in Santiago and about 20 branches in important localities throughout the country. The Union provides no economic benefits, except indirectly through the betterment of general conditions. It works in the interest of the teaching profession, the school, and the child.

Influenced by educators like Kerschensteiner, Decroly, Dewey, and Kilpatrick, this organization helped to bring about the educational reform of 1928 (p. 12) which gave a strong social orientation to the schools and introduced the ideas of the activity school and the value of experience.

National Teachers Society (Sociedad Nacional de Profesores) is composed fundamentally of secondary school teachers, but also has members from all levels of schools. Approximately 30 years old, it has a membership of about 4,000. It works for educational reform, well-being, and improvement of teachers. It also provides certain economic benefits for its members-14,000 pesos life insurance, for example, and owns a 1,000,000-peso building in the heart of Santiago.

Normal School Society (Sociedad de Escuelas Normales), founded in 1941, concerns itself with the particular problems of normal schools. A national congress of normal school personnel was held at the University of Chile in Santiago, in September 1944, to discuss vital present-day prob lems of teacher education. The general tenor of the meeting showed clearly the interest of Chilean normal-school teachers in such directions as democratic philosophy, socialized methods of presentation, the value and lack of materials and texts, the curriculum, teacher improvement, and educa

tional research. A second conference of the Normal School Society is scheduled for 1945.

Society for the Study of the New Education is an academic organization of men and women from the professions, industry, and business. This group meets biweekly, and more frequently when deemed advisable, for the analysis and study of problems of all educational levels. It has no official affiliations, but exercises considerable influence through its individual members.

Association of Retired Teachers (Asociación de Profesores Jubilados) is an organization interested in the betterment of the economic conditions of retired teachers.

Society of Private Teachers (Sociedad de Profesores Particulares) concerns itself largely with betterment of the teacher's economic condition.

All these teacher organizations together form the Federation of Chilean Educators (Federación de Educadores de Chile-FEDCH), which is affiliated with the Confederation of American Teachers (Confederación Americana del Magisterio-CAM). This latter organization met in Santiago in December 1943, the resolutions and agreements resulting from this Fourth Congress being published by Gútenberg, Impresores, Santiago de Chile, 1944.

Other teachers associations, all of which have headquarters in Santiago' are the Society of Elementary School Teachers (Sociedad de Profesores de Instrucción Primaria), Association of Teachers of Industrial and Mining Education (Associación de Educadores de la Enseñanza Industrial y Minera), Chilean Association of Teachers of Physical Education (Associación de Profesores de Educación Física de Chile), Society of Teachers of Commercial and Industrial Education (Sociedad de Profesores de Educación Comercial y Especial), Society of Teachers of Adult Education (Sociedad de Profesores de Escuelas de Adultos), Association of Teachers of Schools Annexed to the Liceos (Associación de Profesores de Escuelas Anexas a los Liceos).

CHAPTER V

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary education (enseñanza secundaria).-Secondary education in Chile is under the direction and supervision of the Department of Secondary Education in the National Ministry. Courses of study, qualifications and appointment of teachers, regulations concerning examinations and promotions, and confirmation of textbooks and reference materials-all these and more are determined by this central department.

Through frequent circulars and directives, the Department apprises the directors of the individual school of its decisions. In turn, the directors report to the Department at specified times on the situations in their respective schools. Contact is furthered also through Department Supervisors (inspectores) who visit the individual schools several times a year. Funds for construction, maintenance and repair of school buildings, teachers' salaries, and certain furniture and equipment are included in the annual budget of the Ministry.

Aims. The public secondary school (liceo) has as its avowed aim the intellectual, moral, and physical development of the adolescent, for entrance to the university and for effective participation in the life of the nation. Actually, however, preparation for the university, under the jur diction of which it functioned until 1927, continues to be the principl objective of its teachings. According to available statistics, about 65 percent of its graduates pass the baccalaureate examinations for university entrance, and about 18 percent of its first-year students reach the sixth and final year of the secondary school.

Since 1938, announcements and circulars emanating from the Department of Secondary Education in the National Ministry have dealt with many modern educational advances. School work is to be related with contemporary problems of business, industry, and national life; and geography and history are to be accorded greater attention. At the opening of the school year the study programs are to be explained and interpreted so that instruction may be given the flexibility demanded by individual differences among the pupils. Homogeneous grouping, wherever practicable, is to be reinforced by lectures, excursions to factories, mines, museums, and similar activities. Vocational work has already been included in the curricula of some schools and slowly but surely practices of modern character are replacing the rigid procedures of the past. Throughout the country there is a growing recognition of the secondary school as an institution for the benefit of all classes, rather than of the moneyed elite alone. The 88 percent of the beginning class, who do not continue into the University but become instead an integral part of the business and industrial world, are being taken into account on an ever increasing scale.

In March 1945, a commission was appointed by the Minister of Public Education to prepare a program for the reorganization of Chilean secondary education. The new program will be inaugurated in 1946, in a specified number of secondary schools.