CHAPTER III

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Aims.-Education at the elementary (primaria) level aims at the physical, intellectual, vocational, and moral development of the child, in harmony with the social and civic needs of the country. In the pedagogical section of the Chilean Ministry of Public Education this general statement is particularized into more tangible concepts. Here, one learns that elementary education aims at the inculcation of knowledge and habits necessary to individual and community health, with prime emphasis on such vital considerations as proper nutrition, exercise, rest, sleep, cleanliness, medical and dental care. Further, that it includes preparation for the economic aspect of life, with a deal of civic, social, and moral training designed to develop whole democratic citizens able to support themselves and to take an active part in the national scene, and that it calls for attention to pupil spontaneity and self-expression which may eventuate either in desirable leisure-time pursuits or in creative activity of social and economic benefit. And it is through this pedagogical section of the Ministry that the elementary teachers of Chile receive their instructions, their materials, and their professional stimulation and supervision.

The school year. The school year for schools of all kinds consists of 10 months of classes. Common practice places it from March to the end December, with some variation because of the great divergence in climatic conditions. "Summer vacation" extends through January and February, with shorter vacation periods of 1 to 3 weeks in July and September. Regulations call for 225 days per year for pupils and 10 additional days for teachers-for registration and other administrative demands at the beginning of the year and examinations and reports at the end. Classes are held 6 days a week, but the afternoons of Wednesdays and Saturdays are free. Ordinarily, the school day is 6 hours-9 a.m. to 12 noon and 2 to 5 p.m., except for first- and second-year pupils, who attend school 5 hours a day. Class periods are 45 minutes each, separated by 15-minute rest periods. In Santiago and the larger cities two school sessions are being run to cope with the problem of increased enrollments and lack of school buildings. In rural areas a school day of from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m. is being tried out with success.

School buildings. The lack of adequate school buildings is felt keenly everywhere in Chile. In the cities there are many fine modern schools, often built around large, bright, airy patios, and equipped with first-rate appurtenances; but the vast majority are totally inadequate. Many of them, even in urban centers, are only slightly remodeled residences with poor illumination, poor ventilation, and almost obsolete educational equipment. Rural school buildings, about 2,700 in number, are typically poor, illy distributed, one-room affairs with the worst imaginable equipment. Of the total of 2,359 national school buildings in 1943 only 536, or 22 percent, were Government-owned: 626, or 27 percent, were lent rent-free by individuals or organizations; and the other 1,197, or 51 percent, were rented by the Government at a cost of approximately

25,000,000 pesos per year. In addition to the 2,359 public schools there were also, in 1943, 174 municipal and 967 private schools, making a total of 3,500 elementary school buildings, about 40 percent of which are regarded by officials in the Ministry as inadequate. To remedy this situa tion Law 5989 was passed in 1936, authorizing the founding of a School Buildings Corporation (Sociedad Constructora de Establecimientos Educacionales), capitalized at $10,700,000 (U.S.), of which $3,570,000 (U.S.) was subscribed by the State. Private investors put up the rest against a guarantee of 8 percent profit. The Government agrees to rent the buildings constructed by this corporation. Elementary schools only are to be constructed during the first 10 years. By the end of 1943, 139 school buildings were constructed, providing capacity for approximately 100,000 pupils. Special emphasis is placed on the construction of schools in regions where none exist, and in accordance with Law 7061 of October 8, 1941, the Corporation is required to provide all buildings with necessary school furniture.

Types of schools.-In Chile the term educación primaria (primary education) envelopes practically all instruction below the secondary level. For that reason the more inclusive term, elementary, is employed throughout this report. Elementary education is offered, consequently, in numerous types of establishments: Kindergartens (jardines infantiles); regular elementary schools (primarias), including rural; preparatory sections in secondary schools (liceos and colegios); practice schools connected with teacher-training institutions; country home schools (escuelas hogares); farm schools (escuelas granjas); a school for blind and deaf-mutes (ciegos y sordomudos); a school for mentally retarded children (retardos mentales); elementary agricultural schools (escuelas agricolas elementales); experimental schools (experimentales); night schools for adults; prison schools (carcelarias); and elementary classes given in connection with trade schools.

Kindergartens.-Preschool education (educación parvularia) is offered in 140 kindergartens, of which 40 are conducted by the National Government and 100 by private enterprise. The Government kindergartens are generally maintained in connection with regular elementary schools. with the preparatory sections of secondary schools, or with the practice schools in teacher-training institutions. In 1943 enrollments in the Government kindergartens were 1,751; in the private institutions, 2,793; making a total of 4,544, with an average attendance of 3,624. Ordinarily, Government kindergartens have one teacher for each year's work, as determined by the age and development of the children. Pupils from 4 to 6 years of age are accepted, the majority being 5 and 6. Instruction comes 5 days per week, 3 hours per day, in sections ranging from 20 to 60 pupils each. There is usually a small schoolyard (patio) which the kindergartners may enjoy, but few institutions have any elaborate specially-designed equipment for this level of instruction. To a very great extent the teachers themselves prepare the materials for their groups-tables, chairs, cut-out materials, blocks, flash cards, educative games for arithmetic and language, and the like.

Kindergarten education began in Chile in 1911 with a German school in Santiago conducted according to the Froebelian method. Today a composite of procedures is employed, Froebelian and Montessorian activities being complemented and improved by Chilean contributions that bind the school intimately with the social milieu in which it operates. The teachers are graduates of normal schools and have specialized in kinder

garten work. To date there is no organized program of studies or activitives, so that instruction is left entirely to the discretion of the teacher. The objectives are those commonly claimed, however, in our North American institutions, where a number of the teachers-and their teachers in the Chilean Normal Schools-have studied. According to reports of elementary principals and teachers, kindergarten graduates excel other pupils in social behavior, general learning activities, and personal discipline.

Regular elementary schools.-Regular elementary education is offered in three types of schools, designated in the Ministry of Public Education as first, second, and third class. The criterion for distinguishing between these schools is the "grade," which in Chile comprises 2 years. Thus, firstclass schools are of three grades, or a 6-year course, to which a vocational grade or two may be added; second-class schools are of two grades, or 4 years; and third-class schools, of one grade, or 2 years. First- and secondclass schools generally have a principal (director) who is responsible for administrative duties. Schools in rural districts, nearly three-quarters of all, are of the third class and almost uniformly one-room, one-teacher institutions. Almost all are also coeducational, due to the lack of funds for building and maintaining separate schools. In urban centers the sexes are strictly segregated.

Education is by law free and compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 15 years, or until completion of the second grade (first 4 years). The enormous majority of single-grade rural schools, however, or rather the lack of a sufficient number of first- and second-class schools, renders impossible the enforcement of the law. It is interesting to note that existing decrees call for the establishment of a school by the proprietor of every large estate (fundo) or industry where there are as many as 20 children of school age; but these decrees must be confirmed by the National Congress-which is still a matter of future action. Several schools of this character have, however, been maintained for years.

Enrollments. Statistics for 1943 present a striking picture. In the 502 first-class, 787 second-class and 2,573 third-class schools enrollments totaled 612,359 pupils. In view of Chile's efforts in recent years to increase enrollments and to provide sufficient schools and teachers, one might be inclined to interpret the great differences in enrollment from year to year as indicative of success achieved in popularizing education. Unhappily, this is not the case. To show that elimination from school is a very serious problem in Chile, despite all efforts to overcome it, and that school registration in the various years is substantially the same as it was years ago, a comparison between enrollments for 1943 and 19361 is given in table 1.

'Amanda Labarca H. Historia de la Enseñanza en Chile. Imprenta Universitaria. Santiago, 1939. p. 279. TABLE 1.-Elementary school enrollments for 1936 and 1943

The 1936 figures include public and private enrollments, whereas those for 1943 are for Government schools only; but the falling-off from year to year is practically the same in both instances. Between 40 and 50 percent of the first-year pupils fail to continue into second year. In 1936, about 27 percent as many pupils were in the fourth year (end of compulsory education) as in the first year, and the low holding power thus shown is but slightly raised in the 31 percent in 1943. In both cases a mere 11 percent reach the last, or sixth year, and figures for 1944 reveal further that only 11,643 graduates from Government schools and 6,500 from private schools entered secondary institutions-about 3 percent of the total public and private first-year enrollment in that year. The estimate of the number of school-age children (7-15 years) in Chile in 1944 was 1,022,300, of which 63 percent were actually enrolled in school.

The vocational grade. In accord with provisions of the Compulsory Education Law of 1920 calling for instruction in the rudiments of a trade in keeping with the sex of the pupil and the particular needs of the region, a vocational grade, constituting a fourth grade, has been added to 101 first-class schools. Presumably, these grades aim to prepare pupils for the transition from school to industrial work. They admit not only graduates of the sixth year of the elementary, but also pupils who have completed the second year of a secondary school. So far, no provision has been made either for vocational guidance or scientific vocational training, because adequate funds have not been allotted for this work. Furthermore, tools, machinery, materials, and trained personnel are noticeably lacking. The offering consists of a very limited amount of practical training in the manual arts and in the tasks of the home. Assisted by some 800 individuals actually engaged in these vocational pursuits, 387 special teachers have charge of the instruction, under the direction and supervision of inspectors from the Ministry. In 1943, total enrollments of children and adults in vocational grades were 18,119, with an actual attendance of 14,463.

Elementary teachers and methods.-Between 75 and 80 percent of Chile's 13,592 elementary school teachers hold normal-school licenses (título de normalista). This license or certificate is granted upon satisfactory completion of the 6-year normal-school course. Graduates of the regular 6-year secondary schools are permitted to teach for 2 years, but must then qualify for the license by passing a special examination (examen de propietario), prepared under the direction of the Ministry. After passing this test they are regarded as "normalistas." Other requirements for teachers are health, moral character, musical ability, and “a calling," which latter must be certified in writing by a responsible person. The ratio between women and men teachers is about three to one.

On the whole, Chilean teachers are doing a fine job against enormous obstacles. Only 4,000,000 pesos, or about 7.50 pesos per pupil, are spent annually by the Ministry for school materials. Readers, four or five notebooks, and 35 sheets of drawing paper per pupil, and two boxes of chalk per teacher constitute the bulk of the materials distributed. Pencils, erasers, crayons, and similar equipment must be provided by the parents. As already mentioned, school buildings are generally far from satisfactory. In many districts cooperation of parents is lukewarm, if not entirely absent. Yet, in the face of these drawbacks, great numbers of Chilean teachers, proud of their profession and their accomplishments, construct their own materials, provide their own reference books, evolve their own modus operandi, and carry on in a manner worthy of the continental esteem in which they are held.

The Herbartian technique, with its five formal steps, still dominates Chilean instruction. Regulations call for sections of from 40 to 50 pupils, but the sections range from 20 to 100. Attention to individual differences is out of the question under such circumstances. Textbooks are expensive and consequently rare, so that the teacher is obliged to plan well and make much use of dictation, explanation, and illustration. The majority of teachers are well acquainted with the more modern methods of subjectmatter presentation and many of them employ them successfully. The Decroly system, involving "centers of interest," emphasis on observation, association, and expression, study of the individual child in his relationships with his environment, and the activity motive, is combined with Dewey's problem approach, Thorndike's projects, the Dalton contract, the Winnetka social emphasis, the Scandinavian "sloyd," and Chile's own present leaning toward national vocational development in actual laboratory and shop situations.

Since 1932 the Department of Elementary and Normal Education in the Ministry, has been introducing a new "program" that embodies both content and method, with distinctly Activity School orientation. Based on child psychology and the suggestions of modern sociology, the new program embraces a curriculum of activities and a teachinglearning guide that is flexible and susceptible to almost infinite variations to conform to circumstances, environment, pupil nature, and the preparation and resourcefulness of the teacher. It is definitely aimed at the development of the "ability to do," in contrast to the traditional emphasis on "ability to memorize."

This new experimental program divides the 6-year elementary course into two equal cycles, in the first of which each of the curricular divisions (social education, nature study, language, mathematics, manual activities and drawing, morality and hygiene, physical education, and music) is studied in the light of certain centers of interest or frames of reference (school, home, region, community now, community in the past, holidays and festivals, vacations, occupations, group activities). In the second cycle, years 4 to 6, the greater degree of mental maturity of the pupils. permits the study of each curricular division in increased detail, on a broader plane and at a higher level. Motivation, definition of the task or problem, planning the solution, realization, and final check-up or criticism of results constitute the stages in the new learning process and are entered into actively by the pupils and teacher together. The new program is being tried out in an increasing number of selected schools with good results.2

Naturally, this new program eliminates much of the traditional routine of education-detailed daily schedules, set lessons and plans, prescribed subject matter, for example; but as already pointed out, considerable freedom is enjoyed even in the conventional elementary schools. Principals, supervisors, and teachers are all products of the same normal schools, whose courses are identical, and there is consequently much uniformity of procedure; but at the same time intelligent experimentation and manipulation are encouraged in regard to both subject matter and presentation. The lack of textbooks accentuates the necessity for good teaching and bolsters the Ministry's regulation against homework, which is still a common practice in most private schools. Physical training inclines toward the Swedish form of gymnastics, rather than the military type. Character education is imparted when the occasion presents itself, rather

2 Oscar Bustos A. Principios y Técnica de la Escuela Activa. Imprenta R. Quevedo O., Santiago de Chile, 1944. p. 291–301.