Reimann adds: "With the advent of the laser, efficient light-emitting diodes, and high-speed photodetectors, interest in the application of higher speed opto-electronic circuits to digital logic has increased. . . . We may in the future expect to see opto-electronic circuits which will combine laser amplifiers with other high-speed semiconductor devices." (1965, p. 248). Then we note that optoelectronic techniques may also be used to attack some of the problems that increasingly plague the circuit designer.6.80 Possibilities for circumventing interconnection limitations which become more severe as physical area per component is reduced are also stressed by Reimann (1965, p. 247). He states: "The possibility of signal connection between parts of the system without electrical or actual physical contacts are very attractive for integrated circuit techniques. With optical signals, a totally new approach to the interconnection of digital devices is possible." Optoelectronic techniques as applied to the problems of large, inexpensive memories are not only promising as such,6.81 they also may be used to attack the noise problems still posed by integrated circuits.6.82 Thus Merryman savs "one attractive property of optoelectronic devices is their potential for isolation; they can get rid of the noise that is generated when two subsystems are coupled. The noise problem is even tougher in integrated circuit systems, because the transformers used in traditional methods of isolation are too bulky." (1965, p. 52). 6.2. Batch Fabrication and Integrated In very recent years, it has been claimed that integrated circuitry is the most significant advance in computer hardware technology since the introduction of the transistor; 6.83 that it will bring important changes in the size, cost, reliability and speed of system design components,6.84 and that advanced high-speed techniques paradoxically also indicate eventual lower costs.6.85 Many potential advantages of increased usage of LSI techniques are cited in the literature. These include, for example, applications in improved central processor unit speed or capacity performance, in system control and reliability, and in content-addressable (associative) memory construction and operation.6.86 Wilkes suggests that parallelism achieved by use of these techniques may overcome present-day deficiencies of processing systems in such applications as pattern recognition.6.87 In terms of relatively recent R & D literature, Minnick (1967) provides a review of microcellular research, with emphasis upon techniques useful for batch-fabricated circuit design; Bilous et al. (1966) discuss IBM developments of large scale integration techniques to form monolithic circuit arrays, where on only nine chips it was possible to replicate a specific System/360 computer model, and, under RADC auspices, Savitt et al. (1967) have explored both language development and advanced machine organization concepts in terms of large scale integration (LSI) fabrication techniques.6.88 That is, in general, where integrated circuits based on etched circuit board techniques had replaced discrete components, the LSI techniques of fabrication produce sheets of integrated logic components as units.6 6.89 To what extent do integrated fabrication techniques hold promise for future developments in very large yet inexpensive memories? Rajchman suggests that "the dominance of non-integrated memories is likely to be finally broken or at least seriously challenged by integrated memories, of which the laminated-ferrite-diode and the superconductive-thin-sheet-cryotron memories are promising examples." (Rajchman, 1965, p. 128.) And, further, that "it appears certain that energetic efforts will continue to be devoted towards integrated technologies for larger and less costly memories, as this is still the single most important hardware improvement possible in the computer art." (Rajchman, 1965, p. 128.) Other advocates. include Gross,6.90 Hudson,6.91 Van Dam and Michener,6.92 Pyke,6.93 and Conway and Spandorfer.6.94 Hobbs says of silicon-on-sapphire circuits that their fabrication is suitable for large arrays and that they are indeed "promising, but presently being pursued by only one company." (1966, p. 38.) Of active thin-film circuits, he concludes: "Potentially cheaper and easier to fabricate very large arrays. Feasibility is not proven and utilization much further away." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 38.) The same reviewer continues: "Costs are expected to range between 3 and 5 cents per circuit in large interconnected circuit arrays . . . However, the ability to achieve these costs is dependent upon the use of large interconnected arrays of circuits and, hence, upon the computer industry's ability to develop logical design and machine organization techniques permitting and utilizing such arrays." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 39.) Continuing R & D problems in terms of LSI technology include those of packaging design,6.95 error detection and correction with respect to malfunctioning components; 6.96 the proper balance to be achieved between flexibility, redundancy, and maintenance or monitoring procedures, and questions of segmentation or differentiation of functional logic types.6.97 One example of many special prob In the area of advanced hardware, the prospects for much larger, much faster, and more versatile storage systems must of course be a major R & D consideration. Current technological advances indicate the desirability of increasing use of integrated construction methods using ferrite aperture plates, thin films, laminated-diode combinations, field-effect transistors, and superconductive thin film systems, among other recent developments.6.99 For another example, possible applications of echo resonance techniques for microwave pulse delay lines that would be suitable for high-speed memories are being explored at the Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory. (Kaplan and Kooi, 1966). Advanced hardware developments for improved data storage emphasize both higher speeds of access and readout and larger capacities at higher densities of storage. There are the small capacity, ultra-highspeed, memories of the read-only, scratchpad, and associative type. These typically supplement significantly larger capacity and slower speed "main memories". Next, there are continuing prospects for high density, very large capacity stores. There is finally the question of R & D requirements in the area where the development of "artificial" memories are designed to replicate, so far as possible, known neurophysiological phenomena. For example, Borsellino and his colleagues at the University of Genoa are studying physicalchemical simulation, such as collagen "memories", in terms of possible mechanisms of axon action, connectivity of pulses, and currents through membranes. (Stevens, 1968, p. 31). We may thus conclude with Licklider that "insofar as memory media are concerned, current research and development present many possibilities. The most immediate prospects advanced for primary memories are thin magnetic films, coated wires, and cryogenic films. For the next echelons, there are magnetic disks and photographic films and plates. Farther distant are thermoplastics and photosensitive crystals. Still farther away - almost wholly speculative- are protein molecules and other quasi-living structures." (Licklider, 1965, pp. 63-64). 6.3.1. Main Memories Questions of advanced tehcnological developments related to data and program information storage and recall concern first of all the problems of "main memory"- that is, the preloaded, immediately accessible, information-recording space allocated at any one time to necessary system supervision and control, to user(s) programs and data, and to temporary work space requirements. It is to be noted that "this 'main' memory size is related to the processing rate; the faster the arithmetic and logic units, the faster and larger the memory must be to keep the machine busy, or to enable it to solve problems without waiting for data.” (Hoagland, 1965, p. 53). Further, "this incompatibility between logic and memory speeds has led to increased parallel operation in processors and more complex instructions as an attempt to increase overall system capability." (Pyke, 1967, p. 161). usually magnetic core, with typical capacities of a As of current technology, main memories are still million bits and cycle times of about one microsecond.6.100 One relatively recent exception is the NCR Rod Memory Computer, which is claimed to have "about the fastest main memory cycle time of any commercial computer yet delivered-800 nanoseconds." (Data Processing Mag. 7, No. 11, 12 (Nov. 1965).) This is a thin-film memory, constructed from beryllion-copper wires plated with magnetic coating.6.101 Petschauer lists the following trends which may be expected in magnetic memory developments in the near future: "1. Trend toward simple cell structures-2 or 3 wire arrays. "2. More automated assembly and conductor termination or batch-fabricated arrays. "3. More fully automated plane testing. "4. More standardization. "5. Extended use of integrated or hybrid circuits. "6. Improved methods of packaging for stack and stack interface circuits to reduce packaging and assembly costs. "7. Reduced physical size." (Petschauer, 1967, p. 599). With respect to current prospects for much larger, much faster main memories, Rajchman (1965) reviews possibilities for integrated construction methods using ferrite aperture plates, thin films, laminate-diode combinations, field-effect transistors, and superconductive thin film cryotrons.6.102 It is noted further that "planar magnetic film memories offer many advantages for applications as main computer storage units in the capacity range of 200K to 5M bits." (Simkins, 1967, p. 593), and that "perhaps the most significant system advantage available to users of plated magnetic cylindrical thin film memory elements is a nondestructive readout capability. For main memory use, NDRO with equal Read-Write drive currents is most advantageous. It allows the greatest possible flexibility of organization and operation. For maximum economy, many memory words (or bytes) may be ac cessed by a single word drive line without need for more than one set of sense amplifiers and bit current drivers. The set contains only the number of amplifiers needed to process the bits of one word (or byte) in parallel.” (Fedde, 1967, p. 595). Simpson (1968) discusses the thin film memory developed at Texas Instruments.6.103 Nevertheless, the known number of storage elements capable of matching ultrafast processing and control cycle times (100-nanosecond or less) are relatively few,6.104 and there are many difficulties to be encountered in currently available advanced techniques.6.105 Some specific R & D requirements indicated in the literature include materials research to lower the high voltages presently required for light-switching in optically addressed memories (Kohn, 1965),6.106 attacks on noise problems in integrated circuit techniques (Merryman, 1965),6.107 and the provision of built-in redundancy against element failures encountered in batch fabrication techniques (Kohn, 1965). In the case of cryotrons used for memory design, Rajchman (1965) notes that the "cost and relative inconvenience of the necessary cooling equipment is justified only for extremely large storage capacities" (p. 126), such as those extending beyond 10 million bits, and Van Dam and Michener (1967) concur.6.108 Considerations of "break-even" economics with respect to cryogenicelement memories such as to balance high density storage and high speed access against the "cooling" costs has been assessed at a minimum randomaccess memory requirement of 107 bits.6.109 As of 1967-68, however, practical realizations of such techniques have been largely limited to small-scale, special-purpose auxiliary and content-addressable memories, to be discussed next. 6.3.2. High-Speed, Special-Purpose, and Associative or Content-Addressable Memories Small, high-speed, special-purpose memories have been used as adjuncts to main memories in computer design for some years.6.110 One major purpose is to provide increased speed of instruction access or address translation, or both. The "readonly-stores" (ROS) in particular represent relatively recent advances in "firmware," or built-in microprogramming.6.111 It is noted that "the mode of implementing ROM's spans the art, from capacitor and resistor arrays and magnetic core ropes and snakes to selectively deposited magnetic film arrays." (Nisenoff, 1966, p. 1826.) An Israeli entry involves a two-level memory system with a microprogrammed "Read Only Store" having an access time of 400 nanoseconds. (Dreyer, 1968.) A variation for instructionaccess processes is the MYRA (MYRi Aperture) ferrite disk described by Briley (1965). This, when accessed, produces pulses in sequential trains on 64 or more wires. A macro instruction is addressed to an element in the MYRA memory which then produces gating signals for the arithmetic unit and signals for fetching both operands and the next macro instructions. Further, "Picoinstructions are stored at constant radii upon a MYRA disk, in the proper order to perform the desired task. The advantages of the MYRA element are that the picoinstructions are automatically accessed in se"6.112 Holographic ROM possibilities quence are also under consideration.6.113 In the area of associative, or content-addressable memories,6.114 advanced hardware developments to date have largely been involved in processor design and provision of small-scale auxiliary or "scratchpad" memories rather than for massive selectionretrieval and data bank management applications.6.115 "Scratchpad" memories, also referred to as "slave" memories, e.g., by Wilkes (1965),6.116 are defined by Gluck (1965) as "small uniform access memories with access and cycle times matched to the clock of the logic." They are used for such purposes as reducing instruction-access time, for microprogramming, for buffering of instructions or data that are transferable in small blocks (as in the "four-fetch" design of the B 8500),6.117 for storage of intermediate results, as table lookup devices,6.118 as index registers and, to a limited extent, for content addressing.6.119 Another example is the modified "interactive" cell assembly design of content-addressable memory where entries are to be retrieved by coincidence of a part of an input or query pattern with a part of stored reference patterns, including other variations on particular match operations (Gaines and Lee, 1965),6.120 In addition, we note developments with respect to a solenoid array 6.121 and stacks of plastic card resistor arrays, 6.122 both usable for associative memory purposes; the GAP (Goodyear Associative Processor), 6.123 the APP (Associative Parallel Processor) described by Fuller and Bird (1965),6.124 the ASP (Association-Storing Processor) machine organization, 6.125 and various approaches which compromise somewhat on speed, including bitrather than word-parallel searching 6.126 or the use of circulating memories such as glass delay lines.6.127 Cryogenic approaches to the hardware realization of associative memory concepts have been under investigation since at least the mid-1950's (Slade and McMahon, 1957), while McDermid and Peterson (1961) report work on a magnetic core technique as of 1960. However, the technology for developing high-speed reactivity in these special-purpose memories has been advanced in the past few years. On the basis of experimental demonstration, at least, there have been significant advances with respect to parallel-processing, associative-addressing, internal but auxiliary techniques in the form of memories built-into some of the recently developed large computer systems.6.128 The actual incorporation of such devices, even if of somewhat limited scale, in operational computer system designs is of considerable interest, whether of 25- or 250-nanosecond performance. For example, Ammon and Neitzert report RCA experiments that "show the feasibility of a 256-word 376-411 O-70-3 scratchpad memory with an access time of 30 nanoseconds. . . The read/write cycle time, however, will still be limited by the amplifier recovery so that with the best transistors available it appears that 60 nanoseconds are required". (1965, p. 659). RCA developments also include a sonic film memory in which thin magnetic films and scanning strain waves are combined for serial storage of digital information.6.129 Crawford et al. (1965) have claimed that an IBM tunnel diode memory of 64 48-bit words and a read/ restore or clear/write cycle time of less than 25 nanoseconds was "the first complete memory system using any type of technology reported in this size and speed range". (p. 636),6.130 Then there is an IBM development of a read-only, deposited magnetic film memory, having high-speed read capability (i.e., 19ns access time) and promising economics because the technique is amenable to batch fabrication.6.131 (Matick et al., 1966). Catt and associates of Motorola describe "an integrated circuit memory containing 64 words of 8 bits per word, which is compatible in respect to both speed and signal level with high-speed currentmode gates. The memory has a nondestructive read cycle of 17 nanoseconds and a write cycle of 10 nanoseconds without cycle overlap." (Catt et al., 1966, p. 315).6.132 Anacker et al. (1966) discuss 1,000-bit film memories with 30 nanosecond access times.6.133 Kohn et al. (1967) have investigated a 140,000 bit, nondestructive read-out magnetic film memory that can be read with a 20-nanosecond read cycle time, a 30-nanosecond access time, and a 65-nanosecond write time. More recently, IBM has announced a semi-conductor memory with 40 nanosecond access.6.134 Memories of this type that are of somewhat larger capacity but somewhat less speed (in the 100-500 nanosecond range) are exemplified by such commercially-announced developments as those of Electronic Memories,6.135 Computer Control Company,6.136 and IBM.6.137 Thus, Werner et al. (1967) describe a 110-nanosecond ferrite core memory with a word capacity of 8,192 words,6.138 while Pugh et al. (1967) report other IBM developments involving a 120-nanosecond film memory of 600,000-bit capacity. McCallister and Chong (1966) describe an experimental plated wire memory system of 150,000-bit capacity with a 500-nanosecond cycle time and a 300nanosecond access time, developed at UNIVAC.6.139 Another UNIVAC development involves planar thin films.6.140 A 16,384-word, 52-bit, planar film memory with half-microsecond or less, (350 nanosecond) cycle time, under development at Burroughs laboratories for some years, has been described by Bittman (1964).6.141 Other recent developments have been discussed by Seitzer (1967) 6.142 and Raffel et al. (1968),6.143 among others. For million-bit and higher capacities, recent IBM investigations have been directed toward the use of "chain magnetic film storage elements" 6.144 in both DRO and NDRO storage systems with 500 nanosecond cycle times.6.145 It is noted, however, that "a considerable amount of development work is still required to establish the handling, assembly, and packaging techniques." (Abbas et al., 1967, p. 311). A plated wire random access memory is under development by UNIVAC for the Rome Air Development Center. "The basic memory module consists of 10 bits; the mechanical package can hold 10 modules. The potential speed is a 1-to-2 microsecond word rate. . . . Ease of fabrication has been emphasized in the memory stack design. These factors, together with the low plated wire element cost, make an inexpensive mass plated wire store a distinct possibility." (Chong et al., 1967, p. 363).6.146 RADC's interests in associative processing are also reflected in contracts with Goodyear Aerospace Corp., Akron, Ohio, for investigation and experimental fabrication of associative memories and processors. (See, for example, Gall, 1966). 6.3.3. High-Density Data Recording and Storage Another important field of investigation with respect to advanced data recording, processing, and storage techniques is that of further development of high-density data recording media and methods and bulk storage techniques, including block-oriented random access memories.6.147 Magnetic techniques-cores, tapes, and cards - continue to be pushed toward multimillion bit capacities.6.148 A single-wall domain magnetic memory system has recently been patented by Bell Telephone Laboratories.6.149 In terms of R & D requirements for these techniques, further development of magnetic heads, recording media, and means for track location has been indicated,6 6.150 as is also the case for electron or laser beam recording techniques.6.151 Videotape developments are also to be noted.6.152 In addition to the examples of laser, holographic, and photochromic technologies applied to high density data recording previously given, we may note some of the other advanced techniques that are being developed for large-capacity, compact storage. These developments include the materials and media as well as techniques for recording with light, heat, electrons, and laser beams. In particular, "a tremendous amount of research work is being undertaken in the area of photosensitive materials. Part of this has been sparked by the acute shortage of silver for conventional films and papers. In October, more than 800 people attend a symposium in Washington, D.C., on Unconventional Photographic Systems. Progress was described in a number of areas, including deformable films, electrophotography, photochromic systems, unconventional silver systems, and photopolymers." (Hartsuch, 1968, p. 56). Examples include the General Electric Photocharge,6.153 the IBM Photo-Digital system,6.154 the UNICON mass memory, 6.155 a system announced by Foto-Mem Inc.6.156 and the use of thin dielectric films at Hughes Research Laboratories.6.157 At Stanford Research Institute, a program for the U.S. Army Electronics Command is concerned with investigations of high-density arrays of micron-size storage elements, which are addressed by electron beam. The goal is a digital storage density of 108 bits per square centimeter.6.158 Still another development is the NCR heat-mode recording technique. (Carlson and Ives, 1968). This involves the use of relatively low power CW lasers to achieve real-time, high-resolution (150:1) recording on a variety of thin films on suitable substrates.6.159 In particular, microimage recordings can be achieved directly from electronic charactergeneration devices.6.160 Newberry of General Electric has described an electron optical data storage technique involving a 'fly's eye' lens system for which a "a packing density of 108 bits per square inch has already been demonstrated with 1 micron beam diameter." (1966, p. 727-728). Then there is a new recording-coding system, from Kodak, that uses fine-grained photographic media, diffraction grating patterns, and laser light sources. 6.161 As a final example of recent recording developments we note that Gross (1967) has described a variety of investigations at Ampex, including color video recordings on magnetic film plated discs, silver halide film for both digital and analog recordings, and use of magneto-optic effects for reading digital recordings.6.162 Areas where continuing R & D efforts appear to be indicated include questions of read-out from highly compact data storage,6.163 of vacuum equipment in the case of electron beam recording,6.164 and of noise in some of the reversible media.6.165 Then it is noted that "at present it is not at all clear what compromises between direct image recording and holographic image recording will best preserve high information density with adequate redundancy, but the subject is one that attracts considerable research interest." (Smith, 1966, p. 1298). Materials and media for storage are also subjects of continuing R & D concern in both the achievement of higher packing densities with fast direct access and in the exploration of prospects for storage of multivalued data at a single physical location. For example: "A frontal attack on new materials for storage is crucial if we are to use the inherent capability of the transducers now at our disposal to write and read more than 1 bit of data at 1 location.. "One novel approach for a multilevel photographic store now being studied is the use of color photography techniques to achieve multibit storage at each physical memory location. . . Color film can store multilevels at the same point because both intensity and frequency can be detected." (Hoagland, 1965, p. 58). "An experimental device which changes the color of a laser beam at electronic speeds has been developed... IBM scientists believe it could lead to the development of color-coded computer memories with up to a hundred million bits of information stored on one square inch of photographic film." (Commun. ACM 9, 707 (1966).) Such components and materials would have extremely high density, high resolution characteristics. One example of intriguing technical possibilities is reported by Fleisher et al. (1965) in terms of a standing-wave, read-only memory where n color sources might provide n information bits, one for each color, at each storage location.6.166 These authors claim that an apparently unique feature of this memory would be a capability for storing both digital and analog (video) information,6.167 and that parallel word selection, accomplished by fiber-optic light splitting or other means, would be useful in associative selection and retrieval.6.168 7. Debugging, On-Line Diagnosis, Instrumentation, and Problems of Simulation Beyond the problems of initial design of information processing systems are those involved in the provision of suitable and effective debugging, selfmonitoring, self-diagnosis, and self-repair facilities in such systems. Overall system design R & D requirements are, finally, epitomized in increased concern over the needs for on-line instrumentation, simulation, and formal modelling of information flows and information handling processes, and with the difficulties so far encountered in achieving solutions to these problems. In turn, many of these problems are precisely involved in questions of systems evaluation. It has been cogently suggested that the area of aids to debugging "has been given more lip service and less attention than any other" 7.1 in considerations of information processing systems design. Special, continuing, R & D requirements are raised in the situations, first, of checking out very large programs, and secondly, of carrying out checkout operations under multiple-access, effectually online, conditions.7.2 In particular, the checkout of very large programs presents special problems.7.3 7.1. Debugging Problems Program checkout and debugging are also problems of increasing severity in terms of multipleaccess systems. Head states that "testing of many non-real-time systems-even large ones- has all too often been ill-planned and haphazard with numerous errors discovered only after cutover. In most real-time systems, the prevalence of errors after cutover, any one of which could force the |