neighborhood, class, caste, and profession, indeed any form of social life, has its sphere of authority, its ideals, and its methods of control.

16

Legal compulsion, and some sort of "socialism"-though hardly altogether in the sense Mr. Ellis uses the term16. -as means of social control, have, no doubt, their place of importance. Men have their co-operative physical and industrial interests. And as Professor Ross says:

If one rascal among twenty men might agress at will, the higher forms of control would break down, confidence in fair play would disappear, and man after man would abandon the honest majority. The deadly contagion of lawlessness would spread with growing rapidity till social order lay in ruins. The law, therefore, is still the cornerstone of the edifice of order.17

Yet, if man is to live a more genuinely human life, the extralegal controls, the controls through social ideals, socialized education, through the complete and absorbing identification of men and women with group life and social welfare, seem destined to become more binding, directing, and pervading. If man is to have a more genuine choice, greater intellectual creativeness, and finer adjustments of inner and outer conditions, if, in other words, he is increasingly to realize his specially human possibility of self-adaptation and instrumentation, social and moral control will necessarily become more psychically intimate, and more spiritually18 searching. Says Professor Bodenhafer:

The coming of a point of view which recognizes that the group actually creates its own persons means much to a society which finds itself face to face with increasing demands for adjustment and progress. To assume the individual as given, and as prior to the group, is to assume the futility of much effort toward the making of society or the modification of social institutions. With the newer point of view the problem of social control becomes not merely one of manipulation of ready-made individuals, nor the assistance in helping readymade minds to unfold, but it becomes the very positive one of creating the conditions under which the type of mind or self that is desired is created.1o

SOCIAL CONTROL INVARIABLY PRESENT EVEN IN SEX PRACTICES
WHICH MIGHT APPEAR TO BE, AMONG CERTAIN PEOPLES,
FREE FROM SUCH CONTROL

Writers on the sexual life of man sometimes presume that if a people has no definite prohibition against the sexual indulgence of its boys and girls this people exercises no control over their sexual acts and practices.20 The idea is that if there are no legal restraints or any adverse public opinion forbidding their sexual intercourse, that if boys and girls can freely cohabit before marriage, then social control is absent in their sex conduct. If virginity and continence are not valued, and therefore not required, it is assumed that sexual acts are not socially controlled.

21

That sexual continence is not to be found everywhere among men, and that it is especially absent among some11 primitive peoples is a fact.22 Indeed, among many natives the very idea of sexual purity is unknown; 23 among them female chastity is no virtue; 24 and even the word for virgin is difficult to find in their languages.25 If these facts marked the complete absence of social control, there would be a rather large number of tribes and peoples on record among whom the merely biologically given source for sex

20

"See chapter xxviii of A. Bebel's Woman and Socialism, especially p. 742 (1910 ed.).

"Not all primitive peoples, of course, are habitually unchaste before marriage. For a series of facts of primitive customs and ways for keeping the sexes stringently apart before marriage, see A. E. Crawley, "Sexual Taboo: A Study of Primitive Marriage," in Jour. Anthr. Inst., XXIV, 445 ff. Premarital chastity is also closely guarded among the following: the Apache of New Mexico (H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, I, 514); the Veddas of Ceylon (C. G. and B. Z. Seligmann, The Veddas, p. 68); the Amphlett Islanders (Bronislaw Malinowski, "Complex and Myth in Mother-Right," in Psyche, V, 197, and also Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific, chap. xi); the Ipi Tribes (J. H. Holmes, In Primitive New Guinea, p. 53); the Kunbi natives of Central India (R. V. Russell, The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, IV, 27).

2 See Edward Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, I, 148-49; also William G. Sumner, Folkways, p. 421.

"J. Sibree, The Great African Island, p. 252.

"H. B. Guppy, The Solomon Islands and Their Natives, p. 43.

conduct has full sway. These tribes and peoples that presumably allow their young men and young women socially uncontrolled sexual conduct seem most numerous in various parts of Africa, among the Melanesians of and near New Guinea, and in several parts of India.

31

36

34

In Central Africa the Fors,26 the Matabele," the Monbuttu natives,28 the natives of Azimba Land; 29 the Wanyamwezi,30 and the Wanyoro natives sanction premarital relations. The Bairo natives,32 the Lendu peoples,33 the Nandi and Masai peoples, all of the Uganda Protectorate, do likewise. So do the British Central Africa natives-especially the Ba-Huana and the Lake Nyasa tribes the Awemba natives 38 and the Ila-speaking peoples of Northern Rhodesia; the Bakongo Negroes of Equatorial Africa, the Ibo-speaking natives11 and Obubura Hill natives12 of Southern *R. W. Felkin, "Notes on the For Tribe of Central Africa," in Proceed. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, p. 233.

37

27 L. Decle, Three Years in Savage Africa, p. 160.

40

"Edward Schnitzer, Emin Pasha in Central Africa, p. 208.

"H. C. Angus, "The Initiation Ceremonies of Girls as Performed in Azimba Land, Central Africa," in Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., XXX, 481.

34

35

Ibid., pp. 824, 878; also H. H. Johnston, the Kilima-Njaro Expedition, p. 415. 'John Roscoe, The Northern Banto, an account of some Central Africa tribes of the Uganda Protectorate, pp. 260, 281; also H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa North of the Zambesi, pp. 408, 409 n.

36

Torday and Joyce, "Notes on the Ethnography of the Ba-Huana," in Jour. Anthr. Inst., XXXVI, 288.

"H. S. Stannus, "Notes on Some Tribes of British Central Africa,” in Jour. Anthr. Inst., XL, 309.

38

"C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia, p. 141.

39

II, 38.

"E. W. Smith and A. M. Dale, The Ila-Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia,

40

John H. Weeks, Among the Primitive Bakongo, pp. 106, 163, 172.

"N. W. Thomas, Anthropological Report on the Ibo-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria, p. 69.

42

Charles Partridge, Cross River Natives of Obubura Hill District, Southern Nigeria, p. 254.

43

45

Nigeria; the Kafirs, the Bushmen," and the Kimbunda natives of Northeast Africa; and the Portuguese East Africa natives.1o The Wadigo natives of Northeast Africa, the Boloki of West Africa, the Bushongo1 and the Warega natives5o of Belgian Congo, and the Bengala natives1 of the Upper Congo River; the Barea and Kunama natives52 of Northern Abyssinia, the Hottentots of German Southwest Africa,53 and the Pangwe natives of Northwest Africa do the same.

55

56

Of the Melanesian natives near New Guinea, the Trobriand Islanders, the Solomon Islanders, the Radack natives of the Coral Islands," as well as the Mortlock Islanders,58 are described as placing no value upon continence in boys and girls. The PapuaMelanesians on New Guinea proper,59 including the Mailu," the A. Kropf, Das Volk der Xosa-Kaffern in Östlichen Südafrika, p. 138.

44

“G. M. Theal, The Yellow and Dark-skinned Peoples of Africa South of the Zambesi, p. 47.

45

4 L. Magyar, Reisen in Südafrica in den Jahren 1849 bis 1857, p. 285.

"G. E. Turner, Report of the Alleged Prevalence of Pulmonary Tuberculosis in the Kraals of the Natives of Portuguese East Africa, p. 45.

"O. Baumann, Usambara, p. 152.

J. H. Weeks, Among Congo Cannibals, p. 127.

"Torday and Joyce, Les Bushongo, pp. 116, 266, 272.

50 M. Delhaise, Les Warega, p. 167.

51

"1 J. H. Weeks, "Anthropological Notes on the Bengala of the Upper Congo River," in Jour. Anthr. Inst., XXXIX, 130; also ibid., XL, 417.

62 W. Munzinger, Östafrikanishe Studien, p. 524.

53 H. von Francois, Nama und Damara in Deutsch-Süd-West-Afrika, p. 213.

"G. Tessman, Die Pangwe, II, 252.

"B. Malinowski, "The Psychology of Sex and the Foundation of Kinship in Primitive Society," in Psyche, IV, 122; ibid., “Psychoanalysis and Anthropology," in Psyche, IV, 311, 319, 327; The Argonauts of the Western Pacific, chap. ii.

"H. B. Guppy, op. cit., p. 43.

Otto von Kotzebue, A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Straits, III, 172.

“One of the Caroline Islands; J. Kubary, “Die Bewohner der Mortlock Inseln," in Mittheil, d. Geograph. Gesselsch., p. 252.

69

Richard Taylor, Te Ika a Maui; M. Krieger, Neu-Guinea, p. 173.

B. Malinowski, "The Natives of Mailu," in Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia, XXXIX, 559.

61

62

Koita, and Motu, the Waima and Elema tribes of the Rorospeaking peoples," the Telaria natives," the Tubetube," the Wedan and Wamira natives, the Wagawaga," the Milne Bay natives, and the Mafulu Mountain people, evaluate chastity likewise.

68

69

76

In India the Karens,70 of British Burma, the Kachins1 of Upper Burma, the Bhuiyars" of Bengal, the Kuki-Lushai tribes of Assam, as well as the Angami Nagas of Assam," are not concerned about virginity. Neither are the Mrus," the Kyoungtha, the Toungtha," or the Tipperah" natives of the Dwellers of the Hill Tracts of Chittagong; nor the Dravidian tribes and those of the low Himalayas and Tharus in Oudh," or the Bhutia and Limbo1 tribes. In the Indian Archipelago, the islands of Savu,82 Flores,8 Timor and Sumba are inhabited by tribes "free" sexually in this way.

61

1 B. Malinowski, loc. cit.; also C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 134.

02

B. Malinowski, loc. cit. Also C. G. Seligmann, ibid., pp. 76, 134.

"R. W. Williamson, The Majulu Mountain People of British New Guinea,

p. 172.

10 C. J. Forbes, British Burma and Its Peoples, p. 286.

"G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazeteer of Upper Burma, I, Part I.

"E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 142 ff.

"D. Prain, “The Angami Nagas," in Rev. Col. Intern. V, 491; A. W. Davis, "Naga Tribes," in Census of India, I, 250; S. E. Peak, "On the Morong as Possibly a Relic of Pre-marriage Communism," in Jour. Anthr. Inst., XXII, 248; T. C. Hodson, Naga Tribes of Manipur, pp. 78, 87; and W. McCulloch, "Account of the Valley of Munnipore," in Selections from the Records of the Government of India, Foreign Department, p. xxiii.

"T. H. Lewin, The Hill Tracts of Chittagong, p. 93.

"W. Crooke, The Tribes and Castes of the Northwestern Provinces and Oudh, I, clxxxiv.

80

"R. Schmidt, Leibe und Ehe in alten und modernen Indien, p. 221.