presence of "the factor of negation," which is an attitude of separation from the closed adult group and a degree of resistance to its edicts. A positive factor is the element of sex. During the school age, however, this factor operates in a dissociating fashion, tending to separate the sexes rather than attract them. Early childhood is characterized further by what Max Weber has termed "charismatism" or personal allegiance, i.e., allegiance to an individual as such. This form of relationship is, of course, easily disturbed.

The youth movement: The supposition that in the youth movement there is found a vertical grouping of the population on the basis of age alone, cutting across cultural, economic, religious, and political interests is erroneous. What we find, instead, is a series of groupings of adolescents according to class, culture, politics, and personal leadership. It is in its various sections, such as the nationalist, catholic, and communist leagues of youth that the youth movement of today exerts any vitality and any degree of permanent influence on the social movements of the present.Paul Honigsheim, Kölner Vierteljahrshefte für Soziologie, III (Heft 4, 1924), 26474. (I, 4; II, 1; IV; VII, 4.) L. W.

Popular Answers to Some Psychological Questions. Several college classes were asked to indicate which of a list of thirty statements current in popular pseudopsychology (but not held by scientists) they believed to be true. On the average, the students believed in about one-third of the misconceptions. Positive replies were most frequent for ideas where the misconception was due to ignorance of the specific meaning of technical terms, and least frequent for those notions which were merely popular superstitions. Between these extremes lay a middle ground of popular psychological fallacies which are often exploited by various agencies, such as the newspapers, but which have been definitely discredited by men of science.-H. K. Nixon, American Journal of Psychology, XXXVI (July, 1925), 418–23. (I, 4; III, 2.)

E. R. R.

III. PEOPLES AND CULTURAL GROUPS

Les Origines de l'Art.-There is positive proof that art existed during the Aurignacion period, but it is questionable whether it existed as far back as the old paleolithic period. Regularity and proportion of form is shown in some of the instruments of Chellean and Aschulean periods, but it is uncertain whether this was accomplished intentionally or accidentally. Various works of art are found among primitive peoples of today in the form of figures, skin decorations, ornaments, carvings, and paintings. As would be expected, some tribes are more advanced than others in their forms of presentation.-H. Breuil, Journal de Psychologie, XXII (April, 1925), 289-96. (III, 1.) P.T.D.

Political Organization of the Plains Indians, with Special Reference to the Council.-The Plains Indians were not a unit in any respect, but differed in physical make-up, language, material life, social organization, and religious development. Everything centers around the buffalo, and in this animal we find the key to the description of the Plains culture-area. There is much diversity in their political organization, yet all centered on tribal government, all the aspects of which were interrelated with the council, whose members were composed of the elders or the greatest warriors, or both, and it was this body that regulated all the tribal affairs or advised the chief concerning them.-Maurice Greer Smith, University Studies (University of Nebraska), XXIV (January-April, 1924), 1–84. (III, 1.) P. T.D.

The Immigrant Community and Immigrant Press. Outside New York and Chicago, immigrant populations fall into three or four large groups, which may be designated as settlers, colonists, migrant industrials, and exotics. The immigrant community is an institution for Americanization, and the awakening of interest in the immigrant in the reputation of his home country in America is the first step in Americanization.-Robert E. Park, American Review, III (March-April, 1925), 143– 52. (III, 4.)

P.E. M.

The Racial Problems Involved in Immigration from Latin America and the West Indies to the United States.-In continental America south of the United States, and in islands adjacent thereto live some 90,000,000 people, two-thirds of whom belong to the colored races or represent crosses between colored and white stocks. The recent rapidly rising tide of immigration into the United States from these lands has forced upon the people of the United States a new problem. After a study of the countries south of the United States and an evaluation of the racial elements it is supposed that these immigrants would be a detriment rather than an asset to the United States.-Robert F. Foerster, United States Department of Labor Bulletin, 1925. (III, 4.) P.T.D.

Zur Typologie der Kulturen (Types of Cultures).—Just as there are individual psychological types there are corresponding cultural types, differentiating one people from another, for which we must rely upon the findings of individual psychology, important among which are those of Kretschmer, Klages, Spranger, Jaspers, Müller-Freienfels, Jung, and Frobenius. Physiological differences in so-called racial groups have to be taken into account. Cultures may be studied from the standpoint of the presence or absence and the relative importance of certain basic human instincts and impulses, as are revealed in the works of McDougall and Oppenheimer. More important than anything else, however, for a study of cultures are the habits of peoples and, finally, the sets of values which appear as dominant directive forces in the cultural lives of peoples. The anthropogeographers have made available important facts about the essential differences in physical surroundings or settings as they occur in cultural types. The internal composition of a cultural type is significant as seen particularly from the standpoint of the occupational interests of its component social groups. The relationships existing between the elements composing a culture may reveal a typical culture pattern. The nature of the institutions and the technique and the attitude toward them may be revealing in the study of a typology of cultures. The type to which a given culture will conform will finally be determined by its creative ability, for cultural creations do not become a passive part of the stock of cultural traditions, but are vital elements in the life of a group.Andreas Walther, Kölner Vierteljahrshefte für Soziologie, IV (Heft 1-2, 1924), 1331. (III, 6, 3; IV, 2; V, 4; VII, 2, 4.) L. W.

Zum gegenwärtigen Stande der Völkerpsychologie (The Present Status of Folk Psychology).-The term "folk-psychology" dates back to Alexander von Humboldt. Toward the middle of the nineteenth century it was taken over and developed by the philosopher Steinthal in association with the philologist Lazarus, who gave it world-wide currency through their journal, Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie. Steinthal and his predecessor Von Humboldt conceived of folk-psychology as a comparative psychology of older and newer, of exotic and familiar, peoples. Beside seeking to explore the peculiarities of peoples, Steinthal attempted to explore the general psychic phenomena in the life of peoples. Wilhelm Wundt was primarily interested in the genetic aspects of cultural life as a complementary part of the psychology of the individual. He sought to collect the objective facts of mental life in the language, myths, and customs of peoples living beyond the range of occidental culture and to use them in connection with the experimental data to be obtained in the psychological laboratory by objective and exact methods. Folk-psychology, anthropology, and sociology: The anthropology of the eighteenth century concerned itself with the mental life of peoples, and in that sense was synonymous with folkpsychology. With the nineteenth century the center of interest of anthropology shifted to the somatic aspect, and was transformed into physical anthropology as it is still being pursued in English-speaking countries. In Germany, however, the description of foreign folkways, especially in their material aspects, has become known as the field of ethnography, and the comparative and synthetic treatment of the social life of peoples of other than our own culture has become known as ethnology. While sociology is interested in the formal groupings, processes, and situations underlying social life, folk-psychology seeks to lay bare the psychic forces and mechanisms in different cultural groups.-Richard Thurnwald, Kölner Vierteljahrshefte für Soziologie, IV (Heft 1-2, 1924), 32–43. (III, 6, 3; I, 4; V, 3; VII, 2; X, 2, 5.) L. W.

The Trend of Anthropology.-The evident failure of the evolutionary scheme led anthropology to seek laws governing human conduct based upon intensive studies of the history and culture of the various groups of mankind. The accumulation of such information makes possible comparison, analysis, and interpretation useful in the solution of modern fundamental problems.-Fay-Cooper Cole, Journal of Applied Sociology, IX (May-June, 1925), 351-55. (III, 6.) P. E. M.

The Newer Testament.-Concessions to critical scholarship in the Revised Version were disastrous to popular reading of the Bible. Modernizations such as Weymouth, Moffat, Goodspeed, and Loisy have failed to ally the New Testament more closely with present folk-consciousness because they are less awful, less religious. The essence of primitive Christianity was religion rather than morality.William Benjamin Smith, Hibbert Journal, XXIII (July, 1925), 588–610. (III, 6.) P. B. B.

IV. CONFLICT AND ACCOMMODATION GROUPS

Social Implications of Factory Labor.-The factory has a profound effect upon its laborers and hence upon society. The trade-union, the shop committee or employee representation, the scientific application of welfare work in the shop, and the improved technique of factory management tend to facilitate the adaptation of labor to the swiftly changing industrial and social conditions.-Samuel M. Levin, American Review, III (March-April, 1925), 168–75. (IV, 1; VII, 1.) P. E. M.

Modernism in China.-The factors forcing modernism in China are the new industrialism, science, and the democratic ideal. They appear in the dropping of the state cult, in the reformation beginning in Buddhism, in syncretistic movements, and, most hopeful of all, in the Renaissance movement.-R. E. Haydon, The Journal of Religion, V (September, 1925), 449–62. (IV, 2; VII, 4.) P.T.D.

The Essence of Jewish Nationalism.-In the case of the Jewish people, nationality and religion are inseparably united. The essence of nationalism consists of a certain spirituality, tradition, common sympathy, identity of race, language, religion, and a common possession of historical recollections. Applying these qualities, the Jews constitute a nation, yet have no land to call their own. The aim of Zionism is to unite the body and spirit; then a territory or land of their own will complete the union. Only through co-operation of all the Jews throughout all the world can this great undertaking be accomplished. The crux of the situation today is still Jewish frigidity to the renascence of their people. If this can be overcome the Jewish restoration will be an event of paramount significance.—Joseph S. Shubow, The Jewish Forum, III (July, 1925), 328–36. (IV, 2.) P.T.D.

Un Problème de Philosophie du Droit: Le Principe des Nationalités.-Nationality should be determined by geography, race, religion, language, and history; all are essential; yet, due to all kinds of antagonisms, such as political, economic, religious, and social, there has been such intermixture that it is almost impossible to have a unit that would actually correspond with the real meaning of nation. Nations should be formed to correspond to the aspirations of the people, but must be within the limit of justice and of possibility.-Y. Briere, Révue de Philosophie, XXV (MayJune, 1925), 306–18. (IV, 2.) P. T.D.

V. COMMUNITIES AND TERRITORIAL GROUPS Rural Improvement through Encouragement.-Many important nation-wide activities to stimulate the best in rural life remain to be studied. Suggested fertile projects are: rural depopulation and migration, standards of living in selected farming districts, conditions of farm tenancy, and various phases of rural advancement. -C. B. Sherman, South Atlantic Quarterly, XXIV (July, 1925), 264–68. (V, 1.) P. E. M.

Keeping the Rural Nurse Rural.-The rural public health nurse meets a large number of discouragements, such as meddlesome supervision by people who are un

fitted to supervise, misunderstanding of her work and its needs, loneliness, unjust suspicions, etc. The result is that the nurse, feeling that the people who employ her do not care, soon loses interest herself and returns to the city, where the work of medical agencies is better understood.-George Thomas Palmer, Survey, LIV (May 15, 1925), 228-29. (V, 1; VIII, 3.) E. R. R.

The Beloved Community.-An attempt at a solution of the social problems of Canada in so far as it affects rural society. The beloved community in its ultimate form must most nearly resemble the family, a society where the lives of each receive the greatest possible opportunity, where there is a general sense of social sympathy and social responsibility, and where every member of the community is valuable for himself and has his place, work, and happiness. The social ideal most nearly responding to this will be found to exist in the community principle of organization here outlined.-Lorne Pierce, The Ryerson Essays, Number 29, Toronto: The Ryerson Press, 1925. (V, 1.) P.T.D.

Regions-To Live In.-Regional planning attempts to plan a geographic area that possesses a certain unity of climate, soil, vegetation, industry, and culture so that all its sites and resources may be soundly developed, and so that the population will be distributed so as to utilize, rather than to nullify or destroy, its natural advantages. It sees people, industry, and the land as a single unit. Instead of trying by one desperate dodge or another to make life a little more tolerable in the congested centers, it attempts to determine what sort of equipment will be needed for the new centers.-Lewis Mumford, The Survey, LIV (May 1, 1925), 151-52. (V, 3, 4; VIII, 2.)

E. R. R.

The Co-operative Movement in Europe. The co-operative movement in Europe started with retail stores and then expanded to include wholesale buying, manufacturing, growing of food products, transportation, housing, and banking. The significant feature of the movement is that these activities can be and are carried on successfully in the absence of profit as a motive. Students of social conditions abroad claim that the profit system is doomed and that the co-operative movement is the hope of Europe today.-J. P. Warbasse, American Review, II (JulyAugust, 1924), 348–55. (V, 3; VII, 1.) E. R. R.

The Turnover of Leadership in the Community.-Turnover of leadership serves as an index of change in society, and indicates social mobility and continuity of the community. In a town of thirty thousand population there were four successive types of leadership: the pioneer, the booster or speculator, the business enterpriser, and the public and semi-public official.—Carl W. Strow, Journal of Applied Sociology, IX (May-June, 1925), 366–71. (V, 3; VII, 4.) P.E. M.

Toward a Philosophy of Labor.-Perhaps every urban civilization is parasitic, killing its host. We cannot return to agricultural or pastoral civilization, but can renew attachment to the land by alternating one week of gardening with every two in the schoolroom. Transportation would enable industrial workers to support their families in homes with gardens.-J. W. Scott, Hibbert Journal, XXIII (July, 1925), 668-78. (V, 4; VI, 1.)

VI. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

P. B. B.

A Study of Pre-Delinquency and Some Reflections of a Counselor.-In Cleveland, Ohio, through the Attendance Department of the Board of Education, an attempt has been made to study the variables involved in the cases of truancy and incorrigibles. There is a close correlation between an individual's vocation and his standard of conduct. Keeping the children in school and training them in some occupation, regular employment, and pride in possession will check the lawlessness of tomorrow. Czarina J. Giddings, Journal of Delinquency, IX (January-March, 1925), 56–69. (VI, 3; VIII, 1.) E. R. R.

Some Implications of the Leopold-Loeb Hearing in Mitigation.-The defense experts in the Leopold-Loeb hearing made a thorough psychological, neurological,

and psychiatric examination of the defendants. They attempted to avoid suspicion of partisanship by arranging a conference between themselves and the experts for the prosecution, but the prosecutor would not permit such a conference to take place. The use of the characterizations "abnormal" and "pathological" by the experts did not constitute a begging of the question, although they did tend to use superlative language. They concluded that the evidence of an almost total lack of development of the constitutional emotional bases for the organization of certain fundamental social sentiments, together with many others of abnormal mentality, were sufficient to justify these characterizations.-S. Sheldon Glueck, Mental Hygiene, IX (July, 1925), 449-68. (VI, 5; VIII, 4.) E. R. R.

Presidential Address.-The old-fashioned hospital superintendent accomplished the task at hand. Psychiatrists, as specialists in the reaction of the organism as a whole, are fitted to provide the synthetic type of mind needed in medical circles today. The American Psychiatric Association should foster numerous local societies in the United States and Canada, and should ally itself with the related societies. Also an executive committee with a salaried secretary should carry on the work between the annual conventions. The work of the committees establishing minimum standards for work in hospitals for mental diseases should be continued.-William A. White, American Journal of Psychiatry, V (July, 1925), 1–20. (VI, 6.) P. B. B.

Vocational Aspects of Psychiatric Social Work.—Psychiatric social work is a phase of social case work which has developed in recent years. It operates by the methods of social examination or investigation, diagnosis, and treatment to aid in the care and cure of psychiatric cases. Many of the difficulties which lead to lack of proper mental balance have social origin, and in many cases social treatment is necessary for a proper readjustment of the patient to his environment. As a special branch of case work, psychiatric social work requires a specialized training. The psychiatric social workers are now employed in hospitals and dispensaries, in schools for the feebleminded, in psychiatric clinics, by social agencies, and in connection with correctional agencies.-Mental Hygiene, IX (July, 1925), 561-601. (VI, 6.)

VII. SOCIAL SCIENCE AND THE SOCIAL PROCESS

E. R. R.

The Formation of Public Opinion. The power of the press is often regarded as the greatest of all powers in modern life, and yet it is largely irresponsible. Provision should be made for the free formation of public opinion by making the press pay a franchise in the form of space in every issue, to be at the disposal of the different political parties.-Edward Cary Hayes, Journal of Applied Sociology, X (September-October, 1925), 6-9. (VII, 3.) P.E. M.

Analyzing Changes in Public Opinion.-Personal experiences, the training of the individual, and the attitude of a group of which an opinion is formed are factors of prime importance in changes of personal opinion. Changes from an unfavorable to a favorable opinion are slower than changes from a favorable to an unfavorable basis.-E. S. Bogardus, Journal of Applied Sociology, IX (May-June, 1925), 372-81. (VII, 3; I, 4.) P. E. M.

Die Formen des gewaltsamen sozialen Kampfes (The Forms of Violent Social Conflict). Three forms of violent social conflict may be pointed out, namely, assassination, revolt, and revolution. Assassination is the attempt to take the life of an individual or a group, on the part of an individual, sometimes assisted by others, for political reasons. It may be viewed from the standpoint of its objective, the selection of the victim, or the means employed. Revolt and revolution: Revolt differs from revolution in that the former has a partial objective while the latter aims at the complete overthrow of the political and social order. Types of revolutions: On the basis of their objectives there are (1) personal revolutions, i.e., those aiming at the overthrow of the monarch; (2) constitutional revolutions, aiming at the abolition of the existing order of the state; and (3) social revolutions, tending to overthrow the juridical order upon which the social life rests. As a rule such revolutions will affect