Some ongoing initiatives have already been undertaken to address these priorities. For example, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) coordinates a Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS). However, there still are many gaps, and the system requires increased international support and coordination. IGBP-LOICZ aims to stimulate interdisciplinary scientific coastal research in the context of global change. Focus 2 of LOICZ aims to investigate coastal biogeomorphological interactions under different globalchange scenarios. It focuses on the interaction between major ecosystem types with the sedimentary environment and aims to assess the implications of ecosystem perturbations on coastal stability with a rise in sea level. Focus 4 is especially relevant for integrated coastal zone management because it addresses the socioeconomic impacts of global change on coastal zones and aims to investigate how improved strategies for the management of coastal resources can be developed. This chapter is only one small step on the road to global sustainable coastal development and could not have been written if many earlier steps had not been taken. For many decades, scientists and policymakers from all over the world have devoted themselves to coastal research and management; the list of references below reflects only a minor part of their efforts. Hence, the authors would like to thank every person and institution who has contributed to the increased understanding of coastal systems and the growing awareness of the importance of their healthy functioning. Special thanks are due to the contributors and reviewers of this chapter and to Mark Naber and Willem Storm (National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management, The Netherlands), who prepared the figures. References Aalbersberg, B. and J. Hay, 1993: Implications of Climate Change and Sea Adam, K.S., 1995: Vulnerability assessment and coastal management program in the Benin coastal zone. In: Preparing to Meet the Coastal Challenges of the 21st Century, vol. 2. Proceedings of the World Coast Conference, Noordwijk, 1-5 November 1993, CZM-Centre Publication No. 4, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Hague, The Netherlands, pp. 489-497. Aksornkaoe, S. and N. Paphavasit, 1993: Effect of sea-level rise on the mangrove community in Thailand. Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography, 24, 29-34. Allen, J.R.L., 1991: Salt-marsh accretion and sea-level movement in the inner Severn Estuary: the archaeological and historical contribution. Journal of the Geological Society, 148, 485-494. Aparicio-Castro, R., J. Castaneda, and M. Perdomo, 1990. Regional implications of relative sea level rise and global climate change along the manne boundaries of Venezuela. In: Changing Climate and the Coast, Vol 2 [Titus, J.G. (ed.)). Proceedings of the first IPCC CZMS workshop, Miami, 27 November -1 December 1989, Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC, pp. 385-397. ASCE Task Committee, 1992: Effects of sea level rise on bays and estuaries. Coastal Zones and Small Islands Aubrey, D.G. and K.O. Emery, 1993: Recent global sea levels and land levels. Bangladesh Government, 1993: Assessment of the Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: A Pilot Study of Barbier, E.B., 1989: The Economic Value of Ecosystems: 1-Tropical Barbier, E.B., 1994: Valuing environmental functions: tropical wetlands. Land Economics, 70, 155-173. Bateman, I.J., I.H. Langford, R.K. Turner, K.G. Willis, and G.D. Garrod, 1995: Elicitation and truncation effects in contingent valuation studies. Ecological Economics, 12, 161-179. Baumann, R.H., J.W. Day, and C. Miller, 1984: Mississippi deltaic wetland sur- Bijlsma, L. R. Misdorp, L.P.M. de Vrees, M.J.F. Stive, G. Baarse, R. Bilan, D., 1993: The preliminary vulnerability assessment of the Chinese coastal zone due to sea level rise. In: Vulnerability Assessment to Sea Level Rise and Coastal Zone Management (McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.)]. Proceedings of the IPCC/WCC'93 Eastern Hemisphere workshop, Tsukuba, 3-6 August 1993, Department of Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra, Australia, pp. 177-188. Bird, E.C.F., 1985: Coastline Changes: A Global Review. Wiley-Interscience, Chichester, UK. Bird, E.C.F. 1993a: Sea level rise impacts in Southeast Asia. Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography, 24, 1-110. Bird, E.C.F., 19936: Submerging Coasts: The Effects of a Rising Sea Level on Coastal Environments. John Wiley, Chichester, UK. Boesch, D.F., M.N. Josselyn, A.J. Mehta, J.T. Morris, W.K. Nuttle, C.A. Simenstad, and D.J.P. Swift, 1994: Scientific assessment of coastal wetland loss, restoration and management in Louisiana. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 20, 1-103. Broccoli, A.J. and S. Manabe, 1990: Can existing climate models be used to study anthropogenic changes in tropical cyclone climate? Geophysical Research Letters, 17, 1917-1920. Brown, B.E., 1987: Worldwide death of corals: natural cyclical events or manmade pollution? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 18, 9-13. Brown, B.E., R.P. Dunne, T.P. Scoffin, and M.D.A. le Tissier, 1994: Solar damage in intertidal corals. Marine Ecological Progress Series, 105, 219-230. Brown, B.E. and J.C. Ogden, 1993: Coral bleaching. Scientific American, 268, 64-70 Brown, B.E. and Suharsono, 1990: Damage and recovery of coral reefs affected by El Niño related seawater warming in the Thousand Islands, Indonesia Coral Reefs, 8, 163-170. Bruun, P., 1962: Sea-level rise as a cause of shore erosion. Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Division, Proceedings of the American Society 319 Buddemeler, R.W. and S.V. Smith, 1988: Coral reef growth in an era of rapidly rising sea level: predictions and suggestions for long-term research. Coral Reefs, 7, 51-56. Buddemeler, R.W. and J.A. Oberdorfer, 1990: Climate change and groundwater reserves. In: Implications of Expected Climatic Changes in the South Pacific Region: An Overview [Pernetta, J.C. and PJ. Hughes (eds.)]. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 128, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 56-67. Burd, F., 1995: Managed Retreat: A Practical Guide. Campaign for a Living Coast, English Nature, Peterborough, UK. Cambers, G., 1994: Assessment of the vulnerability of coastal areas in Antigua and Nevis to sea level rise. In: Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea (O'Callahan, J. (ed.)). Proceedings of the third IPCC CZMS workshop, Margarita Island, 9-13 March 1992, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD, Pp. 11-27. Carter, R.W.G. and J.D. Orford, 1993: The morphodynamics of coarse clastic beaches and barriers: a short- and long-term perspective. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 15, 158-170. Carter, T.R., M.C. Parry, S. Nishioka, and H. Harasawa (eds.), 1994: Chappell, J., 1990: The effects of sea level rise on tropical riverine lowlands. Chappell, J. and C.D. Woodroffe, 1994: Macrotidal estuaries. In: Coastal Evolution: Late Quaternary Shoreline Morphodynamics (Carter, R.W.G. and C.D. Woodroffe (eds.)). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 187-218. Church, J.A., J.S. Godfrey, D.R. Jackett, and T.J. McDougall, 1991: A model of sea level rise caused by ocean thermal expansion. Journal of Climate, 4, 438-456. Connell, J. and M. Maata, 1992; Environmental Planning. Climate Change Cubasch, U., B.D. Santer, A. Hellback, G. Hegerl, K.H. Hock, E. Maier- Day, J.W., W.H. Conner, R. Constanza, G.P. Kemp, and I.A. Mendelssohn, 1993: Impacts of sea level rise on coastal systems with special emphasis on the Mississippi River deltaic plain. In: Climate and Sea Level Change: Observations, Projections and Implications [Warrick, R.A., E.M. Barrow, and T.M.L. Wigley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 276-296. Day, J.W, D. Pont, C. Ibanez, P.F. Hensel, 1994: Impacts of sea level rise on deltas in the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean: human activities and sustainable management. In: Consequences for Hydrology and Water Management UNESCO International Workshop Seachange ‘93. Noordwijkerhout, 19-23 April 1993, Ministry of Transport, Public Works 320 De Groot, R.S., 1992a. Functions of Nature Evaluation of Nature in Environmental Planning, Management and Decision Making. Wolters. Noordhoff, Groningen, The Netherlands. De Groot, R.S., 1992b. Functions and economic values of coastal protected areas In: Economic Impact of the Mediterranean Coastal Protected Areas. Proceedings of MEDPAN, Ajaccio, 26-28 September 1991 Special issue, MEDPAN Newsletter, 3, 67-83. Delft Hydraulics, Resource Analysis, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management and Coastal Research Institute, 1992. Vulnerability Assessment to Accelerated Sea Level Rise, Case Study Egypt. Delft Hydraulics, Delft, The Netherlands. Dennis, K.C., EJ. Schnack, FH. Mouzo, and C.R. Orona, 1995a: Sea-level rise and Argentina: potential impacts and consequences. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 14, 205-223. Dennis, K.C., 1. Niang-Diop, and R.J. Nicholls, 1995b: Sea-level rise and Devine, N.P., 1992: Urban Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise in the Third World. Downs, L.L., R.J. Nicholls, S.P. Leatherman, and J. Hautzenroder, 1994. Dubois, R.N., 1992: A re-evaluation of Bruun's rule and supporting evidence. Journal of Coastal Research, 8, 616-628. Eakin, C.M., 1995: Post-El Niño Panamanian reefs: less accretion, more ero sion and damselfish protection. In: Proceedings of the Seventh Coral Reef Symposium, vol. 1, Guam, 22-27 June 1992. University of Guam Press, Mangilao, Guam, pp. 387-396. Edwards, A.J., 1995: Impact of climate change on coral reefs, mangroves and tropical seagrass ecosystems. In: Climate Change: Impact on Coastal Habitation [Eisma, D. (ed.)). Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 209-234. Ehler, C.N. (ed.), 1993: Preparatory Workshop on Integrated Coastal Zone Management and Responses to Climate Change Proceedings of the IPCC/WCC'93 Western Hemisphere workshop, New Orleans, 13-16 July 1993, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD. Ellison, J.C., 1993: Mangrove retreat with rising sea level, Bermuda. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 37, 75-87. Ellison, J.C. and D.R. Stoddart, 1991: Mangrove ecosystem collapse during predicted sea-level rise: Holocene analogues and implications. Journal of Coastal Research, 7, 151-165. El-Raey, M., S. Nasr, O. Fríhy, S. Desouki, and K. Dewidar, 1995: Potential Emery, K.O. and D.G. Aubrey, 1991: Sea Levels, Land Levels, and Tide Evans, J.L. and R.J. Allan, 1992: El Niño-Southern Oscillation modification to the structure of the monsoon and tropical cyclone activity in the Australasia region. International Journal of Climatology, 12, 611-623. Fankhauser, S. 1995: Protection vs. retreat: estimating the costs of sea level rise. Environment and Planning A, 27, 299-319. Fifita, P.N., N. Mimura, and N. Hori, 1994: Assessment of the vulnerability of the Kingdom of Tonga to sea level rise. In: Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea [O'Callahan, J. (ed.)]. Proceedings of the third IPCC CZMS workshop, Margarita Island, 9-13 March 1992, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD, pp. 119-139. Fortes, M.D., 1988: Mangroves and seagrass beds of East Asia: habitats under stress. Ambio, 17, 207-213. Frassetto, R. (ed.), 1991: Impact of Sea Level Rise on Cities and Regions. Proceedings of the first international meeting "Cities on Water." Venice, 11-13 December 1989, Marsilio Editori, Venice, Italy. Freestone, D. and J. Pethick, 1990: International legal implications of coastal adjustments under sea-level rise: active or passive policy responses? In: Changing Climate and the Coast, vol. 2 [Titus, J.G. (ed.)]. Proceedings of the first IPCC CZMS workshop, Miami, 27 November -1 December Coastal Zones and Small Islands French, G.T. L.F. Awosika, and C.E. Ibe, 1995: Sea-level rise in Nigeria. potential impacts and consequences. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 14, 224-242. French, J., 1993: Numerical simulation of vertical marsh growth and adjustment to accelerated sea level rise, North Norfolk, UK. Earth Surfact Processes and Landforms, 18, 63-81. French, J.R., T. Spencer, and D.J. Reed (eds.), 1995: Geomorphic Response to Sea-Level Rise. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 20, 1-103. Gates, W.L., P.R. Rowntree, Q.-C. Zeng, 1990: Validation of climate models. In: Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment [Houghton, J.T., GJ. Jenkins, and JJ. Ephraums (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 93-130. Gates, W.L., J.FB. Mitchell, G.J. Boer, U. Cubasch, and V.P. Meleshko, 1992: Climate modelling, climate prediction and model validation, In. Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment (Houghton, J.T. B.A. Callander, and S.K. Varney (eds.)] Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. pp. 97-134. Glynn, P.W., 1993: Coral reef bleaching, ecological perspectives. Coral Reefs, 12, 1-17. Gordon, H.B., P.H. Whetton, A.B. Pittock, A.M. Fowler, and M.R. Haylock, 1992: Simulated changes in daily rainfall intensity due to the enhanced greenhouse effect implications for extreme rainfall events. Climatic Dynamics, 8, 83-102. Gornitz, V.M., 1991: Global coastal hazards from future sea level rise. Global and Planetary Change, 89, 379-398. Gregory, J.M., 1993: Sea-level changes under increasing atmospheric CO, in a transient coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM experiment. Journal of Climate, 6, 2247. Griggs, G.B. and A.S. Trenhaile, 1994: Coastal cliffs and platforms. In: Coastal Evolution: Late Quaternary Shoreline Morphodynamics (Carter, R.W.G. and C.D. Woodroffe (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK, pp. 425-450. Haarsma, R.J., FEB. Mitchell, and C.A. Senior, 1993: Tropical disturbances in a GCM. Climatic Dynamics, 8, 247. Hameed, H., 1993: Sustainable Tourism in the Maldives. M.Phil. thesis, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK. Han, M., N. Mimura, Y. Hosokawa, S. Machida, K. Yamada, L. Wu, and J. Li, 1993: Vulnerability assessment of coastal zone to sea level rise: a case study on the Tianjin coastal plain, North China, by using GIS and Landsat imagery. In: Vulnerability Assessment to Sea Level Rise and Coastal Zone Management (McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.)]. Proceedings of the IPCC/WCC ̄93 Eastern Hemisphere workshop, Tsukuba, 3-6 August 1993, Department of Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra, Australia, pp. 189–195. Han, M., J. Hou, and L. Wu, 1995a: Potential impacts of sea-level rise on China's coastal environment and cities: a national assessment. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 14, 79-95. Han, M., J. Hou, L. Wu, C. Liu, G. Zhao, and Z. Zhang, 1995b: Sea level rise and the North China coastal plain: a preliminary analysis. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 14, 132-150. Hay, J.E. and C. Kaluwin (eds.), 1993: Climate Change and Sea Level Rise in the South Pacific Region. Proceedings of the second SPREP meeting. Noumea, 6-10 April 1992, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia, Western Samoa. Healy, T., 1991: Coastal erosion and sea level rise. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 81, 15-29. Holthus, P., M. Crawford, C. Makroro, and S. Sullivan, 1992: Vulnerability Assessment for Accelerated Sea Level Rise Case Study: Majuro Atell. Republic of the Marshall Islands. SPREP Reports and Studies Series No. 60, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia, Western Samoa. Hoozemans, F.M.J., M. Marchand, and H.A. Pennekamp, 1993: A Global Vulnerability Analysis: Vulnerability Assessment for Population, Coastal Wetlands and Rice Production on a Global Scale, 2nd ed. Delft Hydraulics and Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Delft and The Hague, The Netherlands. Hopley, D., 1993: Coral reef islands in a period of global sea level rise. In. Recent Advances in Marine Science and Technology (Saxena, N.K. (ed.)). Proceedings of the Pacific Congress on Marine Science and Technology (PACON), Kona, Hawaii, 1-5 June 1992, PACON Coastal Zones and Small Islands Hopley, D. and D.W. Kinsey, 1988: The effects of a rapid short-term sea level rise on the Great Barrier Reef. In: Greenhouse: Planning for Climate Change [Pearman, G.I. (ed.)). Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, PP. 189-201. Huq. S., S.I. Ali, and A.A. Rahman, 1995: Sea-level rise and Bangladesh: a preliminary analysis. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 14, 44-53. Ibe, A.C., 1990: Adjustments to the impact of sea level rise along the West and IPCC CZMS, 1991: Common Methodology for Assessing Vulnerability to Ives, J.D. and B. Messerli, 1989: The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Jeftic, L., J. Milliman, and G. Sestini (eds.), 1992: Climate Change and the Mediterranean, Edward Arnold, London, UK. Jagoo, V.K., 1994: Assessment of the vulnerability of Mauritius to sea-level rise. Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea [O'Callahan, J. (ed.)). Proceedings of the third IPCC CZMS workshop, Margarita Island, 9-13 March 1992, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD, pp. 107-118. Kahn, M. and M.F. Sturm, 1993: Case Study Report Guyana: Assessment of the Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Sea Level Rise. CZM-Centre Publication No. 1, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Hague, The Netherlands. Kay, R. and P. Waterman, 1993: Review of the applicability of the "Common Methodology for Assessment of Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise" to the Australian coastal zone. In: Vulnerability Assessment to Sea Level Rise and Coastal Zone Management (McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.)). Proceedings of the IPCC/WCC'93 Eastern Hemisphere workshop. Tsukuba, 3-6 August 1993, Department of Environment, Sport and Territones, Canberra, Australia, pp. 237-246. Khan, A.H., S. Huq, A.A. Rahman, M. Shahidullah, A. Haque, S.A. Naqi, M. Rahman, S. Ahmed, S.I. Ali, M.Y. Ali, M. Ahmed, Y. Islam, and F. Mollick, 1994: Assessment of the vulnerability of Bangladesh to sea level rise. In: Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea (O'Callahan, J. (ed.)). Proceedings of the third IPCC CZMS workshop, Margarita Island, 9-13 March 1992, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD, pp. 143-155. Kinsey, D.W., 1991: The coral reef: an owner-built, high-density, fully-serviced, self-sufficient housing estate in the desert-or is it? Symbiosis, 10, 1-22. Kinsey, D.W. and D. Hopley, 1991: The significance of coral reefs as global carbon sinks: response to greenhouse. Palaeogeography. Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. Global and Planetary Change 321 Kitajima, S., T. Ito, N. Mimura, Y. Hosokawa, M. Tsutsui, and K. Izumi, 1993: Impacts of sea level rise and cost estimate of countermeasures in Japan. In: Vulnerability Assessment to Sea Level Rise and Coastal Zone Management [McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.)]. Proceedings of the IPCC/WCC'93 Eastern Hemisphere workshop, Tsukuba, 3-6 August 1993, Department of Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra, Australia, pp. 115-123. Larkum, A.W.D., A.J. McComb, and S.A. Shepherd (eds.), 1989: Biology of Levitus, S., 1982: Climatological Atlas of the World Ocean. NOAA Professional Paper 13, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC. Lighthill, J., G.J. Holland, W.M. Gray, C. Landsea, G. Craig, J. Evans, Y. Kurihara, and C.P. Guard, 1994: Global climate change and tropical cyclones. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, 2147-2157. Lundin, C.G. and O. Linden, 1993: Coastal ecosystems: attempts to manage a threatened resource. Ambio, 22, 468-473. Maul, G.A. (ed.), 1993: Climatic Change in the Intra-Americas Sea. Edward Amold, London, UK. McGregor, J.L. and R.J. Walsh, 1993: Nested simulations of perpetual January climate over the Australian region. Journal of Geophysical Research, 98, 23,283-290. McLean, R. and A.M. d'Aubert, 1993: Implications of Climate Change and Sea Level Rise for Tokelau. SPREP Reports and Studies Series No. 61, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia, Western Samoa. McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.), 1993: Vulnerability Assessment to Sea Level Rise and Coastal Zone Management. Proceedings of the IPCC/WCC'93 Eastern Hemisphere workshop. Tsukuba, 3-6 August 1993, Department of Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra, Australia. McLean, R.F. and C.D. Woodroffe, 1993: Vulnerability assessment of coral atolls: the case of Australia's Cocos (Keeling) Islands. In: Vulnerability Assessment to Sea Level Rise and Coastal Zone Management [McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.)). Proceedings of the IPCC/WCC'93 Eastern Hemisphere workshop, Tsukuba, 3-6 August 1993, Department of Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra, Australia, pp. 99-108. Melillo, J.M., A.D. McGuire, D.W. Kicklighter, B. Moore, C.J. Vorosmarty. and A.L. Schloss, 1993: Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature, 363, 234-240. Midun, Z. and S.-C. Lee, 1995: Implications of a greenhouse-induced sealevel rise: a national assessment for Malaysia. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 14, 96-115. Mikolajewicz, U., B.D. Santer, and E. Maier-Reimer, 1990: Ocean response to greenhouse warming. Nature, 845, 589-593. Miller, M.L. and L. Auyong, 1991: Coastal zone tourism. Marine Policy, March, 75-99. Milliman, J.D., J.M. Broadus, and F. Gable, 1989: Environmental and economic implications of rising sea level and subsiding deitas: the Nile and Bengal examples. Ambio, 18, 340-345. Mimura, N., M. Isobe, and Y. Hosokawa, 1993: Coastal zone. In: The Potential Effects of Climate Change in Japan (Nishioka, S., H. Harasawa, H. Hashimoto, T. Ookita, K. Masuda, and T. Morita (eds.)}. Center for Global Environmental Research, Environment Agency, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 57-69. Mimura, N., M. Isobe, and Y. Hosokawa, 1994: Impacts of sea level rise on Japanese coastal zones and response strategies. In: Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea (O'Callahan, J. (ed.)}. Proceedings of the third IPCC CZMS workshop, Margarita Island, 9-13 March 1992, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD, pp. 329-349. Mitchell, J.F.B., S. Manabe, T. Tokioka, and V. Meleshko, 1990: Equilibrium climate change. In: Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment [Houghton, J.T., G.J. Jenkins, and J.J. Ephraums (eds.)]. Cambridge 322 Mitchell, JEB, and JM Gregory, 1992: Climatic consequences of emissions and a comparison of IS92a and SA90 (annex) In: Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment [Houghton, JT, B.A Callander, and S.K Varney (eds)] Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 171-176. Mukai, H, 1993- Biogeography of tropical seagrasses in the Western Pacific Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 44, 1-17. Murphy, JM, 1992: A Prediction of the Transient Response of Climate. Meteorological Office Climate Research Technical Note 32. UK Meteorological Office, Bracknell, UK. Nicholls, N., 1984: The Southern Oscillation, sea-surface temperature, and interannual fluctuations in Australian tropical cyclone activity. Journal of Climate, 4, 661-670. Nicholls, R.J., 1995: Synthesis of vulnerability analysis studies. In: Preparing to Meet the Coastal Challenges of the 21st Century, vol. 1. Proceedings of the World Coast Conference, Noordwijk, 1-5 November 1993, CZMCentre Publication No. 4, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Hague, The Netherlands, pp. 181-216. Nicholls, RJ. and S.P. Leatherman (eds.). 1995a: The potential impact of accelerated sea-level rise on developing countries. Journal of Coastal Research, special issue 14, 1-324, Nicholls, R.J. and S.P. Leatherman, 1995b: Sea-level rise and coastal manage. ment. In: Geomorphology and Land Management in a Changing Environment [McGregor, D. and D. Thompson (eds.)]. John Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp. 229-244. Nicholls, R.J., N. Mimura, and J. Topping, 1995: Climate change in South and Southeast Asia: some implications for coastal areas. Journal of Global Environment Engineering, 1, 137-154. Nijkamp, P., 1991: Climate change, sea-level rise and Dutch defence strategies. Project Appraisal, 16, 143-148. Norris, E.A. (ed.), 1993: Global Marine Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Building Conservation into Decision-Making. Island Press, Washington, DC. Nunn, P.D., A.D. Ravuvu, W. Aalbersberg, N. Mimura, and K. Yamada, 1994a: Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability and Resilience to Sea-Level Rise and Climate Change, Case Study: Yasawa Islands, Fiji. Phase II: Development of methodology. Environment Agency Japan, Overseas Environment Cooperation Centre Japan, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme. Nunn, P.D., A.D. Ravuvu, E. Balogh, N. Mimura, and K. Yamada, 1994b: Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability and Resilience to Sea-Level Rise and Climate Change, Case Study: Savai'i Island, Western Samoa, Phase II: Development of methodology Environment Agency Japan, Overseas Environment Cooperation Centre Japan, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme. O'Callahan, J. (ed.), 1994: Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea. Proceedings of the third IPCC CZMS workshop, Margarita Island, 9-13 March 1992, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD, pp. 11-27. OECD, 1991: Responding to Climate Change: Selected Economic Issues. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France. Oude Essink, G.H.P., R.H. Boekelman, and M.CJ. Bosters, 1993: Physical impacts of sea level change. In: Sea Level Changes and Their Consequences for Hydrology and Water Management. UNESCO International Workshop Seachange '93, Noordwijkerhout, 19-23 April 1993, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Hague, The Netherlands, pp. 81-137. Pachauri, R.K., 1994: Climate Change in Asia: India. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines. Parkinson, R.W. (ed.), 1994: Sea-level rise and the fate of tidal wetlands. Journal of Coastal Research, 10, 987-1086. Parkinson, R.W., R.D. de Laune, and J.R. White, 1994: Holocene sea-level rise and the fate of mangrove forests within the Wider Caribbean region. Parry, M.L., M. Blantran de Rozari, A.L. Chong, and S. Panich (eds.), 1992: Coastal Zones and Small Islands Peerbolte, E.B., JG de Ronde, LPM. de Vrees, M. Mann, and G Baarse. 1991 Impact of Sea Level Rise on Society: A Case Study for The Netherlands Delft Hydraulics and Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Delft and The Hague, The Netherlands Pernetta. J.C., 1988: Projected climate change and sea-level rise: a relative impact rating for the countries of the Pacific basin. In: Potential Impacts of Greenhouse Gas Generated Climate Change and Projected Sea Level Rise on Pacific Island States of the SPREP Region (Pernetta, J.C (ed.)] ASPEI Task Team, Split, Yugoslavia, pp. 1-10. Pernetta, J.C., 1992: Impacts of climate change and sea-level rise on small island states, national and international responses. Global Environmental Change, 2, 19-31 Pernetta, J.C. and D.L. Elder, 1993. Preliminary Assessment of the vulnerability of Belize to accelerated sea-level rise: difficulties in applying the seven step approach and alternative uses of available data In Vulnerability Assessment to Sea Level Rise and Coastal Zone Management, [McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.)]. Proceedings of the IPCC/WCC'93 Eastern Hemisphere workshop. Tsukuba, 3-6 August 1993, Department of Environment, Sport and Temtones, Canberra, Australia, pp. 293-308. Pernetta, J.C. and J.D. Milliman (eds.), 1995: Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone: Implementation Plan. IGBP Report No. 33, International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Stockholm, Sweden. Pethick, J, 1992: Salt marsh geomorphology. In: Salt Marshes (Allen, J.R.L. and K. Pye (eds.)] Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 41-62. Pethick, J., 1993: Shoreline adjustment and coastal management: physical and biological processes under accelerated sea-level rise. Geographical Journal, 159, 162-168. Philander, S.G.H., R.C. Pacanowski, N.-C. Lau, and M.J. Nath, 1992: Simulation of ENSO with a global atmospheric GCM coupled to a high-resolution tropical Pacific Ocean GCM. Journal of Climate, 5, 308-329. Pittock, A.B., 1993: Regional climate change scenarios for the South Pacific Pittock, A.B. and R.A. Flather, 1993: Severe tropical storms and storm surges. Pluijm, M., G. Toms, R.B. Zeidler, A. van Urk, and R. Misdorp, 1992: Poulos, S., A. Papadopoulos, and M.B. Collins, 1994: Deltaic progradation in Thermackos Bay, Northern Greece and its socio-economic implications. Ocean & Coastal Management, 22, 229-247. Pugh, D.T., 1987: Tides, Surges and Mean Sea Level John Wiley. Chichester, UK. Qureshi, A. and D. Hobbie (eds.), 1994: Climate Change in Asia: Thematic Overview. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines. Ray, G.C., 1991: Coastal-zone biodiversity patterns. Bioscience, 41, 490–498. Ray, J. and W.P. Gregg, 1991: Establishing biosphere reserves for coastal barriers. Bioscience, 41, 301-309. Reaka-Kudla, M.L., 1995: An estimate of known and unknown biodiversity and potential for extinction on coral reefs. Reef Encounter, 17, 8-12. Reed, D.J., 1990: The impact of sea level rise on coastal salt marshes. Progress in Physical Geography, 14, 465-481. Reed, DJ., 1995: The response of coastal marshes to sea-level rise: survival or |