Berlin, where the number of law students was much greater, only 7, 5 degrees, respectively, were conferred. After Leipzig came Heidelberg (69), Jena (63), Erlangen (45), and Göttingen (31); in other universities the number varies between 1 and 7.

In the medical faculty the number of degrees conferred has in recent years greatly decreased, since the degree no longer opens the gates of the medical profession; the state examination alone does that. Nevertheless the number of medical degrees is still very large and is kept high, owing to the enormous throng to the study of medicine. Last year 1,442 degrees were conferred after successful examinations, but only 8 honorary degrees. Again Leipzig stands at the head of the list with 299, then follow Würzburg with 163, Munich with 154, Berlin with 146, while Giessen, Rostock, and Marburg, conferred only 12, 13, and 20 degrees.

In the philosophic faculty the number of degrees granted last year was 973 and 14 honoris causa. Though in this faculty comparatively few pursue their studies for the purpose of general culture (the greater number preparing themselves to enter a profession, as is done in the other faculties almost exclusively), there still are such cases; but even then the students endeavor to pass the examination for a degree, because they thereby indicate to the world that they have completed their studies. It is done by literary men, private teachers, chemists, agriculturists and wealthy men who do not intend to enter a definite profession. Besides, future teachers, authors, chemists, etc., regard the degree as a letter of recommendation, and as a means of aiding them in their careers. Leipzig heads the list in the number of degrees conferred in this faculty also. It conferred 143 last year, Erlangen 104, Berlin 88, Halle 75, while Bonn conferred only 21, Greifswald 18, and Giessen 15. The sum total of all degrees conferred in Germany during the last year was 2,818, to which should be added 54 honorary degrees.

13. INCOME AND EXPENDITURES OF GERMAN UNIVERSITIES.

The regular expenditures for maintaining German universities (we quote the budgets of 1891-'92) amount to 19,912,913 marks (or $4,797,100). This total does not express the entire cost of maintenance, since various subsidies on the part of governmental departments from the general disposition fund, expended for the universities, can not be accurately stated. Nor does the total stated include the amount of fees paid by the students for lecture courses-fees that constitute a consid erable part of the professors' income. They are not entered as regular items in the financial statements of the universities, because formerly the students paid them directly to the professors; only recently the "Questor" of the institution collects them. Up to late years we had no way of determining the amount of students' fees for lectures. Neither does the total mentioned include the payments made by patients in clinics.

To the regular expenditures should be added considerable sums for new buildings and purchases that do not occur at stated intervals. These sums vary in different years; hence the statement of one year does not suffice. In 1891-192 these extraordinary expenditures amounted to 3,280,385 marks (or $787,292) for Prussian and 4,768,173 marks (or $1,144,362) for other German universities. These amounts came from state treasuries except the small sum of 46,125 marks (or $11,170), which was derived from invested funds. In the course of the following remarks we shall consider only the regular income and expenditure, except where expressly stated.

The average sum expended for every student in German universities is 708 marks ($170), or 0.4 marks (or $0.096) per capita of the popula, tion. Of the sum total 22.5 per cent is derived from invested funds, real estate, rents, etc., inclusive of fees, 75-4 per cent from state or provincial subsidies. A mere trifle-namely, about $2,000-came from other sources. The state treasury in Prussia paid for the universities 0.26 mark (or $0.0624) per capita of the population; in Bavaria, 0.31 mark (or $0.0744); in France the state pays 0.28 mark (or $0.0672).

The sums spent for the maintenance of the various universities differ greatly. Berlin requires 2,476,786 marks (or $594,429), of which only 13.6 per cent is derived from the universitys' own sources. Leipzig follows with 1,987,468 marks (or $476,992), of which 22 per cent is derived from the universitys' own funds. Bonn, Göttingen, Halle, also require more than a million marks (more than $240,000) each; Breslau, Königsberg, Munich, Strassburg, between 900,000 and a million marks. The smallest sum is required by Rostock, 332,300 marks (or $79,752). The other universities vary between 500,000 and 900,000 marks ($120,000 and $216,000).

TABLE X.-Total regular income and current expenditures of German universities, in

1891-'92.

TABLE X.-Total regular income and current expenditures of German universities, in 1891-'92-Continued.

TABLE Xa.--Extraordinary expenditures of the German universities in 1891-'92.

The subsidies from the State treasury to the various universities are very unequal. The Prussian universities receive an average of 72.7 per cent, the other German universities an average of 80.5 per cent. While Breslau receives 92.8 per cent, Königsberg and Berlin 87 per cent, Bonn 81.1 per cent from the State, Greifswald receives only 39 per cent, Göttingen 36-4 per cent. To Rostock and Heidelberg the State pays 98 and 97 per cent, Tübingen 88 per cent; Jena, however, only 56 per cent.

If we compare these incomes, or rather expenditures (which in this

case means the same), with the number of students, we find in the different universities a very great inequality. Despite the extraordinarily large expenditures of Berlin, they amount only to 489 marks (or $117) per student, the lowest per capita in Germany, except that of Munich, where it is only 264 marks (or $63). Würzburg has the same per capita that Berlin has; the largest per capita is found in Göttingen, Kiel, and Königsberg, namely over 1,300 marks (or $312). The per capita in Giessen is nearly that much, while in Strasburg 1,068 marks (or $256). The other universities vary between 500 ($120) and 900 marks ($216). The per capita of the state subsidies in Prussia is 592 marks (or $142), while in other German universities, is 458 marks (or $110).

Our sources of information give only two items of expenditure, namely, personal and incidental, but both are regular or current. The former means salaries and the other personal expenditures. The salaries amount to 7,772,726 marks ($1,865,454), or 39 per cent. The other personal expenditures amount to 4,300,379 marks ($1,032,091), or 21.5 per cent. The incidental expenses amount to 7,839,808 marks ($1,879,394), or 39-5 per cent. These incidental expenses include the enormous sums used for new buildings, which in Table Xa are given separately under the head of extraordinary expenditures. The new university buildings erected in late years require millions every year. In 1891-'92 Berlin alone required 1,234,294 marks (or $296,231), or 45 per cent of the expenditures for that year. In Munich this item claimed only 300,560 marks (or $72,134), or not quite 20 per cent, but it required nearly 200,000 marks (or $48,000) for extraordinary purposes (not for buildings). In Halle the buildings claimed more than 50 per cent of the extraordinary expenses; besides 329,000 marks (or $78,960), were needed for extraordinary purposes.

The column containing the salaries does not state the whole income of the professors, since the lecture fees are not included. The public lecture courses are free; for private lecture courses the professors charge a fee of 3 to 5 marks (or 72 cents to $1.20) per semester (one lesson a week). For medical practice, work in the natural sciences, demonstrations in the clinics, work in laboratories, in the dissecting rooms, and in microscopic courses, etc., various fees are paid, some very high. For certain studies that require a considerable number of hours on the part of the professor, 40 to 70 marks (or $10 to $17) per semester is charged, without costing the professor anything for material or for assistants' work.

The income of the professor varies very much according to the number of lectures and their attendance. It is to be regretted that a complete summary of these incomes is not available for comparison. But in order to obtain material for an estimate we state that, on an average, in the Prussian university the total income from fees amounts to about

*

New buildings, libraries, clinics, hospitals, laboratories, museums, repairs, fuel and light, etc.

one-half the professors' fixed salary. The various professors participate in these incomes from fees in a very unequal manner, for it must be remembered that the extraordinary and private professors who receive no fixed salary rely entirely upon the lecture fees.

A just estimate of the income from all the sources gives to salaries (including rent where dwellings are not provided) and other personal remunerations (such as traveling expenses) 63-7 per cent, to lecture fees 32.9 per cent, and to other fees (matriculation, examinations, and diplomas) 3-4 per cent. The latter fees play an important role in some universities and faculties, while they almost disappear in others. Naturally only the regular professors draw these fees; they also receive the largest part of the lecture fees, because they, as a rule, have the largest audiences.

In Bavaria, during the years 1869-1872, the lecture fees amounted to 13 per cent of the entire university income. In Tübingen, during the year 1875-276, the fees amounted to 15 per cent of the entire income of the university, and 25.9 per cent of the salaries and remunerations.

The Prussian official statistics offer very exact information concern. ing the professors' salaries. According to the budget of 1892-'93, the salaries of professors amount to 3,429,015 marks (or $822,964), besides 561,912 marks (or $134,859) are paid for rent of dwellings. Since the officers who receive subsidies for rent do not cut a great figure, we can round off the two sums in a total of 3,980,000 marks (or $915,200). But we are not able to state accurately the amount paid for rent to the dif ferent classes of professors; hence can not separate this item from the salaries.

To 534 regular professors the sum of 2,955,120 marks was paid, an average of 5,534 marks ($1,328). The minimum salary was $360; the maximum salary was $3,024. To 187 extraordinary professors the sum of 457,740 marks was paid, an average of 2,448 marks (or $588). The minimum salary was $144, the maximum was $1,052. Ninety-two extraordinary professors did not receive a salary.

As a matter of course, in large universities higher salaries are paid than in smaller institutions. The average salary of a regular professor in Berlin was 7,396 marks (or $1,775). The salaries here vary between 3,000 and 12,000 marks ($720 and $2,880). In Greifswald the average salary was 4,670 marks (or $1,120), the salaries varying between 2,800 and 6,000 marks (or $672 and $1,440).

The salary of a regular professor was: In the Protestant theological faculty, average, 5,797 marks (or $1,391); minimum, 3,200 marks (or $768); maximum, 10,200 marks (or $2,448). In the Catholic theological faculty, average, 4,332 marks (or $1,040); minimum, 1,500 marks (or $360); maximum, 6,000 marks (or $1,440). In the law faculty, average, 6,044 marks (or $1,450); minimum, 2,700 marks (or $648); maximum, 12,600 marks (or $3,024). In the medical faculty, average, 5,194 marks (or $1,247); minimum, 3,000 marks (or $720); maximum,