IDRA
OF TH

NINTRO,Y

PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION

13

This system is difficult to apply to large electoral districts because all the votes must be brought to a central bureau to be counted. A recount of the votes is impossible under the above plan as given. The wishes of many of the electors may be wholly ignored in the transfer of votes. The order in which the ballots are counted may materially affect the result. The system has the appearance of an ingenious juggle, though some of the laws have by certain provisions avoided some of the difficulties mentioned.

Substitute or Gove Method. By this method the elector casts but one vote and expresses no preferences. The transfer of votes is left to the candidates, who transfer their surplus votes, or those over the electoral quota, and their insufficient votes, or those under such quota, to other candidates. The order of such transfer is determined before the election by declarations by the various candidates of the names of those to whom they will make their transfers.

This method defeats the primary object of proportional representation by placing the results of the election largely in the hands of the candidates rather than in the hands of the people.

The d'Hondt quota is not applicable to "Single transferable vote" systems.

Graduated System (Preponderence of choice).

Burnitz Method. The elector votes for a number of candidates equal to the number to be elected, expressing preference. The first, second, third, etc., preferences of each candidate are counted separately. The totals so arrived at are divided, first choices by one,

The quo

second choices by two, third, by three, etc. tients added together give the "electoral quotient” or practical total vote of each candidate. The candidates receiving the highest elective quotients are elected.

[See law of Finland]

Cleveland method. This method differs from the Burnitz only in the value given the ballots, being multiple rather than fractional. Where, for instance, ten representatives are to be elected, first preference counts ten votes, and tenth preference one vote.

The Graduated system is exceptional in not requiring the use of the quota.

These two schemes will be found to result in proportional representation only when a party or considerable group of electors casts all its preferential votes in the same order. If they be distributed equally among the candidates one party may elect its whole list. When preferences are scattered haphazard the results are haphazard.

List System

This system is based on party lists or tickets. Political parties and other groups of electors put in nomination lists of candidates not exceeding the number to be elected.

Where the Single Vote is used each elector casts one vote which may be cast and count for the ticket as a whole, or may be cast for one of its candidates, and count both for that candidate and for the party as a whole.

[See law of Belgium]

Where the Multiple Vote is used each elector casts. as many votes as there are candidates to be elected, and they count both for the candidate and for the party.

[See laws of Cuba, Norway, Sweden, and the Swiss Cantons]

In either case the total number of votes cast for each party, and the total vote given to each candidate individually is determined. Representation is given each party in proportion to its total vote. This may be done by dividing each party's vote by the electoral quota, the resulting quotient being its number of representatives. The quota may be the simple, the Droop or the d'Hondt.

To what individuals within the party the seats shall be assigned is determined by the total personal vote each has received; or it may be required that each candidate receive a number equal to the quota in order to be elected.

In cases where seats remain unfilled by division among the parties according to quota, the remaining seats may be distributed either to the parties having the highest remaining fractions of a quota, or to those having the highest remaining fractions over and above at least one quota.

Modifications of the system are noted in connection with the laws discussed under "Laws."

LAWS

Limited Vote

Brazil. Const. (Feb. 24, 1891) art. 28. Law of Jan. 26, 1892. Deputies, in districts where from three to five are to be elected, are chosen by limited vote.

Italy. Law of May 5, 1891. Limited vote is applied in provinces and municipalities to the election of councillors. When the number to be elected is five or more four-fifths of the number may be voted for. Portugal. Law of Aug. 8, 1901. Limited vote is used in the election of deputies.

Spain. Law of June 26, 1890. Where from two to four deputies are elected from a single district the elector may vote for one less than the number to be elected; where more than four, for two less; where more than eight for three less.

Pennsylvania. Laws of 1875, no. 60, sec. 4 (p. 57). The limited vote is applied to the election of magistrates in the city of Philadelphia. Constitution art. 5, sec. 16, provides for the election of Supreme Court judges by limited vote, the elector to vote for six out of seven.

Cumulative Vote

Cape of Good Hope. (See report of W. HelyHutchinson to the Earl of Elgin, Brit. Miscell. Doc.

no. 3, 1907, p. 105.) Members of the Legislative Council are elected by Cumulative vote.

Illinois. Constitution art. 4, secs. 7 and 8. Members of the House of Representatives are elected in districts of three, each elector voting for two candidates.

The Cumulative vote has been applied to the election of the directors of private corporations by the constitutions of several states.

[Calif., Id., Ill., Ky., Miss., Mo., Mont., Neb., N. D., W. Va.]

Single Untransferable Vote System

Japan. Law of March, 1900. Applies to this system in the choice of the 379 members of the House of Commons in 47 districts electing from 5 to 15 members each. No quota nor transfer of votes is provided for. Candidates highest on the list are to be declared elected until seats are filled.

Single-transferable Vote

Denmark. Law of Feb. 7, 1901 (no. 16). A modification of the Hare system is used for the election of members to the Landsthing. The elimination of low candidates after the transfer of surplus votes is not provided in this law, but seats not filled by the transfer of surplus votes are divided among the remaining candidates according to their total vote. An exception to this rule is found, however, in the provision that no candidate may be elected on less than half the quota number. If the seats are still not all filled the final