This made a net deficit of 1,055,000,000 francs. The interest and amortizement on 1,055,000,000 francs required from 50,000,000 to 60,000,000 francs.

HISTORY. A referendum was held on the question of joining the League of Nations May 15-16. The popular vote was 400,000 against 300,000; the vote by cantons was 111⁄2 for and 101⁄2 against, the greatest majority in favor of membership being in the canton of Vaud (61,000 to 4,000). In the German-speaking cantons, the majority in opposition was 10,000. In the autumn, the federal parliament began its opening session with a discussion of a housing bill, the shortage of houses having become alarming in Switzerland as in other countries. The Socialists favored a measure for the determination of all available housing space and for compelling owners to rent premises not permanently used, but this was voted down by a large majority on the ground that such a step would merely result in discouraging building. The executive of the Swiss Social Democratic party decided against adherence to the Third International.

SYMONS, THOMAS WILLIAM. Military officer and engineer, died at Washington, D. C., November 23. His engineering work, especially that on canals, lighthouses and breakwaters placed him among the leading engineers of the army. He was born at Keesville, N. Y. Feb. 7, 1849 and graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1874. Down to 1899 when he retired from the service, he was engaged on civil and military engineering works in Washington, D. C., Oregon, California and other States of the Far West, and on the Great Lakes. After 1898 he devoted his attention to the building of the New York State canals. He constructed the largest breakwater in the world at Buffalo, N. Y. He served on the Canal Advisory Board and was consulting engineer on canals in the State of New York. He had previously had charge of the United States lighthouses from Detroit, Mich. to Ogdensburgh, N. Y., and had been for some time superintendent of public buildings and grounds and military aid to the President. SYRACUSE, N. Y. See GARBAGE.

SYRACUSE. UNIVERSITY OF. A non-secta rian co-educational institution of the higher learning at Syracuse, N. Y., founded in 1870. The enrollment for the summer session of 1920 was 610 of whom 324 were women. There were 807 registered in the evening session and in the regular fall session of 1920 there were 4630 students, allowing for duplicates. The faculty numbered 450. There were 106,500 volumes in the library. President, James R. Day, LL.D.,

L.H.D.

SYRIA. A country of Asia Minor, whose boundaries were still undetermined at the close of 1920, comprising the portion of Asiatic Turkey which lies between the Euphrates River and the Syrian desert on the east and the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and extending from the Alma Dagh Mountains on the north to Egypt on the south. The boundaries under consideration in 1920 included an area of about 106,740 square miles and a population of about 3,133,500, that is to say, the northern part of Syria of the division known as Syria under Turkish rule, including the vilayets of Syria, Beirut, Zor and Aleppo. The chief towns with their estimated populations are: Damascus, 250,000; Aleppo, 250,000; Beirut, 150,000; Homs, 70,000; Hama,

SYRIA

60,000. The treaty with Turkey recognized the independence of Syria under a mandatory power and the Supreme Council designated France for the mandate. The Emir Feisal was proclaimed king of Syria, March 11, 1920. He was not recognized by the Allies and was finally driven out by the French as noted below.

THE EMIR FEISAL. As noted under the WAR OF THE NATIONS, the San Remo conference resulted in bestowing on France the mandate for Syria and on Great Britain the mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine. This decision disregarded the claims of the Emir Feisal (or Faisal), the son of Hussein, king of the Hegaz, and the leader of a body of Arab nationalists who were believed to aim at the establishment of a great Arab empire (see preceding YEAR Book). He was thought at first to be under the protection or at least acting by the advice of British authorities. His aim appeared to be to constitute an independent Arab kingdom with its capital at Damascus, but it was said that his father disapproved this policy. Different interpretations of Faisal's movements were given according to the sympathy of the narrator with British or French designs. By French writers he was said to have recourse to a few fanatical malcontents who dreamt of a pan-Arabic empire and who hated the French. They accused him of entirely disregarding French rights in Syria, and of pursuing a policy of petty aggression, as shown by the arrests of certain friends of France and by an attempt to prevent the French from using the railway from Aleppo. They referred to him as an upstart, acting without any mandate and said that he systematically endeavored to discredit France among the people of Syria and the Libanus, that he had by money and promises stirred up the people against the French, and that forces commanded by his officers had by occupying the railway in the north of Syria retarded the sending of French aid to their garrisons of Cilicia. In July, it announced that General Gouraud had sent an ultimatum to Faisal ordering him to cease his manoeuvres against France. According to British despatches on the subject this ultimatum commanded the Emir to recognize the mandate of France and the official use of the French language and of French money in Syria. According to French despatches the ultimatum consisted merely in the demand above-mentioned. When no reply was received French troops took possession of the railway. By July 31, Feisal had been set aside and had left the country and the French were in possession of the cities of Aleppo and Damascus. They set up a government under French protection in the Libanus which was to administer the western part of Syria.

was

THE FRENCH IN SYRIA. In September, General Gouraud, French high commissioner for Syria, believing order restored over the greater part of the Cilician plain decided to cease offensive operations. He thereupon proceeded with measures of economic restoration which toward the close of the year were reported to have had good results. The railway system linking Beirut with the chief cities of the interior was repaired; a French bank was established and many industrial, economical and financial bodies were organized. French capital appeared to be finding investment there in considerable amounts. At the close of the year considerable progress was indicated in the reconstruction of postal and transport services, and in public education.

The

French movement for economic exploitation had been gathering strength for two years. It received an impetus at the French Congress of Syria held at Marseilles, January 3-4, 1919, which recommended a number of important measures of reconstruction, including creation or improvement of means of transportation, protection of the cotton interests of the French in Syria, freedom of trade in Syrian products and promotion of exports, improvement of Syrian commercial legislation. This programme had already been partly carried out. Before the war French exports into Syria were placed at about 8,000,000 francs. The French demand included silk cocoons, silks, gums, cereals, eggs, fruits, olive oil, and skins; and the French exports included silk goods, machinery, jewelry, chemical products, drugs, sugar, glassware, cement, porce lain, hardware, etc. The French congratulated themselves that the Germans whom the Turks had favored were completely driven out, and that it was evident that French articles would be preferred to all others. In these descriptions of Syria, the Syrians were always described as faithful to the French tradition and as preferring France to any other country in the world. In French accounts the country was described as a French profectorate faithful to the French interest in spite of all its vicissitudes. In British accounts and in accounts by neutral persons on the other hand, it was frequently said that the Syrians were bitterly opposed to French control.

THE QUESTION OF OCCUPATION. An agreement on the part of France, Great Britain, and Italy, in regard to the safeguarding of their respective spheres within the former Turkish empire was formed when the Treaty of Sèvres was drafted but not made public till November. One of its features was the provision that each Power should retain its troops in the region under its control so long as they were required for the protection of racial minorities, until the Treaty of Sèvres went into force. General Gouraud's change of military policy involved the disarmament of a body of Americans who had been trained under French officers, and which was on the point of going to the aid of compatriots in the Cilician Taurus threatened by the Turks. Armenian refugees from Anatolia were ordered to leave Cilicia and upon their refusal some thousands were deported into French territory. According to the French Armenian squatters were keeping the rightful Turkish possessors from their lands. Armenian sources blamed the French for preventing the relief of the Armenians in the Taurus where the town of Hadjin which had been under siege was captured by the Turkish Nationalists and a massacre of 10,000 Armenians reported. The Armenians were informed by French authorities that as the military would eventually be withdrawn from the region it was occupying they must choose between accepting Turkish rule there in the future and leaving the country. There were other instances of a conciliatory policy on the part of the French toward the Turkish Nationalists and this became more marked after the downfall of Venizelos and the return of ex-king Constantine to Greece (q.v.). In the close of the year General Gouraud was in Paris giving evidence before the Senate committee of foreign affairs, and other committees in regard to conditions in Syria. It appeared from these discus

sions that Cilicia would be evacuated as soon as a satisfactory peace could be obtained with the Turkish Nationalists, but that France would retain her commercial interest there. In respect to Syria, President Millerand declared, "France will occupy all of it and always." General Gouraud said the pacification of Syria had already been virtually achieved and that of Cilicia would follow. He argued that both for political and for economic reasons France must retain its hold on Syria.

PALESTINE. In the autumn the executive office of the Zionists in London issued a request to the Jews of the world to aid in establishing the Jewish national seat of Palestine, and decided to raise a loan of $12,500,000 to be negotiated either through the British government or the Palestine administration and to be floated by London and New York bankers. The High Commissioner of Palestine, Sir Herbert Samuel, who had been sent out to organize the administration, appointed his advisory council, October 1. On October 11 the Jewish National Assembly met at Jerusalem with two hundred delegates, but the orthodox element refused to take part on the ground that the decisions of the assembly would not be binding on the Jews of Palestine. Toward the close of the year Jewish immigrants were arriving at the rate of about 1000 a month, and it was reported that over 200,000 were on the way, chiefly from southern Russia. Measures were taken by the High Commissioner in December for the organization by the aid of English, American and Egyptian financiers of a system of credit banks in the country. At the end of the year a campaign was going on among the Jews of the world for the raising of a fund of £25,000,000 for the restoration of Palestine. See ARCHEOLOGY.

TAFFE, THOMAS. Roman Catholic priest, died at Brooklyn, N. Y., December 1. He had been for forty-seven years rector of St. Patrick's Church in Brooklyn. He was born in 1833; ordained in 1863 and thereafter administered in Brooklyn, where he was one of the best known and most beloved of the city's priests.

TAHITI. See FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN OCEANIA.

TAIWAN. Official name of Formosa (q.v.). TALBERT, JOSEPH TRUITT. Banker, died, May 8. He was born at Hardy, Miss., August 15, 1866; studied at the University of Mississippi, and went into the banking business. He was national bank examiner in the West and Southwest in 1894-97. After 1909 he was vicepresident of the National City Bank in New York City. After 1906 he was a member of the Currency Commission of the American Banking Association. In politics he was a Republican.

TAMBURINI, K. See PSYCHICAL RESEARCH. TARBELL, FRANK BIGLOW. Archæologist, died at New Haven, Conn., December 4. He was born at Groton, Mass., January 1, 1853; graduated at Yale in 1873 and was assistant and later professor of the school of classical studies at Athens and then entered the classical department at Harvard as associate professor of Greek. From 1894 he was professor of classical archæology at the University of Chicago. Among his texts may be mentioned the Philippics of Demosthenes and a History of Greek Art (1896).

TARIFF. A so-called Emergency Tariff measure was introduced in the House of Representatives by Mr. Fordney of Michigan, imposing temporary duties upon certain agricultural

TARIFF

products to meet present emergencies, to provide revenue, and for other purposes. Its provisions were summarized by the United States Chamber of Commerce as follows:

The bill provides duties which would become effective on the day following its enactment into law and remain in effect for ten months thereafter. The duties provided, except as to manufactures of cotton, and of wool and hair, advanced in manufacture beyond being washed or scoured, would be in lieu of those now provided for the period proposed.

These duties are as follows: wheat, 35c bu., flaxseed, 30c bu. (56 lbs), wheat flour and semolina, 20%, corn or maize 15c bu., beans 2c lb., peanuts or ground beans, 3c lb., potatoes 25c bu. (60 lbs.), onions, 40c bu. (57 lbs.), rice, cleaned, 2c, where used in manufacture of canned foods, lc, uncleaned 14c, broken, and rice flour and meal, 14c, rice paddy, 4c, lemons, 2c; peanut oil, 26c gal., cottonseed, cocoanut and soya bean oil, 20c gal., olive oil, 40c gal. in bulk, 50c in containers of less than 5 gallons; cattle 30%, sheep, 1 yr. or over, $2, less than 1 yr. $1, fresh or frozen beef, veal, mutton, lamb or pork, 2c; prepared or preserved meats n. s. p. f., 25%; cattle, sheep and other stock imported for breeding purposes, free; cotton, having staple 1% inches or more, 7c lb., manufactures of which cotton of long staple, 1% in., is component material of chief value, 7c lb. in addition to rates now in effect; wool (except carpet wools), unwashed, 15, washed, 30c, scoured, 45c. When sorted or increased in value by rejection of any part of original fleece the duty would be doubled, but not more than 45c lb. Any of the foregoing when advanced by manufacture would be dutiable at 45c pound in addition to duties now applicable. Sugar, tank bottoms, sirups of cane, sirups of cane juice, etc., not over 75 degrees by polariscope tests, $1.16 per 100 pounds, with 4/100 of a cent per pound additional for every degree over 75; molasses not over 40 degrees, 24%, over 40 degrees and not over 56 degrees 32c per gallon; above 56 degrees, 7 cents per gallon; sugar drainings and sweepings would be dutiable as molasses or sugar as determined by polariscope test. Butter, and substitutes therefor, would be dutiable at 6c per pound, cheese, and substitutes, 23%, fresh milk 2c per gallon, cream, 5c per gallon, preserved or condensed milk (including weight of immediate covering) 2c per pound, sugar of milk, 5c per pound, wrapper tobacco and filler (containing more than 15% wrapper) unstemmed $2.35 per pound, stemmed, $3.00 per pound, filler, n. 8. p. f. unstemmed, 35 per pound, stemmed, 50c pound; apples, 30c bu., cherries 3c per pound, olives in solution, 25c gal., not in solution, 3c lb. The bill passed the House, December 22. It was the subject of much criticism and a sharp discussion of it was beginning at the close of the year.

TARIFF COMMISSION. The Commission renewed its recommendations on the subjects of interim revenue legislation, foreign trade zones, "dumping" and unfair foreign competition, and reciprocity and commercial treaties (see preceding YEAR BOOK). It continued during the fiscal year the publication of reports on Tariff policies for dependent colonies, parts of which had already appeared, and it completed or nearly completed the digest of commercial treaties and the reports on Canadian reciprocity and on the

wool-growing industry throughout the world. Among the investigations that it had in hand were: Special or preferential transportation rates of railroads in this country and abroad; abnormal conditions in certain mineral industries since the war; silk production and manufacture in Europe; wool manufacture in Great Britain; British metal and chemical industries; industrial conditions in Japan; the American lumber industry; Agriculture staples and the. tariff: flax, hemp, jute and their manufactures; the fish industries; the wool carpet and rug industry; silk and silk manufactures and the tariff. Surveys on a variety of subjects. were completed, including print paper and other materials of book manufacture; cotton cloth in relation to the tariff; refined sugar; costs of product in the dye industry; the incandescent mantle industry; the crude botanical drug industry; barytes, barium chemical, and lithopone industries. Mr. William Kent resigned from the Commission, March 1, and the personnel at the close of the year was as follows: Chairman, Thomas Walker Page: other members, David J. Lewis, William S. Culbertson, Edward P. Costigan; secretary, John F. Bethune.

TARLETON, FRANCIS ALEXANDER. British scientist, died, June 19. He was professor of natural philosophy in the University of Dublin. He was born in Ireland, April 28, 1841; educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated with high honors. He wrote an Introduction to the Medical Theory of Attraction (1899, vol. 2 1913); A Treatise on Dynamics (with Dr. Williamson; 3d ed. 1900).

TASMANIA. A state in the Commonwealth of Australia, consisting of the island of Tasmania and several small islands. Area including lation, June 30, 1919, 210,881, as compared with Macquarie, 26,216 square miles; estimated popu(1911) 191,211. Capital, Hobart, with an estimated population, Jan. 1, 1918, of 40,352. Imports, 1918-19, £608,786; exports, £1,002,093. The budget for 1918-19 was: Revenue, £1,581,984; expenditure, £1,644,512. The debt in 1919 was £15,281,281. The railway mileage was 747, of which 587 was state owned. The executive power is in a governor or administrator apin a legislative council and house of assembly, pointed by the crown and the legislative power elected for six years and three years respectively. Governor in 1920, Sir W. L. Allardyce; prime minister, Sir W. H. Lee. See AUSTRÁLIA.

TAYLOR, HOWARD. Lawyer, died in New York City, November 26. He was born in New York City in 1865; graduated at Harvard, 1886; 1888, where he became the head of the law firm began his law practice in New York City in of Taylor, Jackson, Brophy and Nash. counsel for the New York World. TEACHER SCARCITY. See EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES,

He was

TELEPHONY. The year was notable for a constantly increasing demand for telephone service and considerable difficulty in supplying these demands of the public for service. There were several causes for the latter condition. At the beginning of the year the telephone companies were far behind in meeting requests for service because they were but just recovering from the war period, during which development work and manufacture of apparatus for public use had almost ceased. Some time was required, there