ARKANSAS

Tuberculosis Sanitorium, at Booneville (patients, 176); Farm for Women, at Jacksonville (inmates, 13: opened for inmates, June 20, 1920); Boys' Industrial School, at Pine Bluff (population, 121); Girls' Industrial School, at Alexander (inmates, 20; opened for inmates, March 24, 1919); State Penitentiary, at Little Rock, Ark., and with farms at Tucker and Cummins (prisoners, 728).

ELECTIONS. The vote for President was as follows: Cox, 105,618; Harding, 69,874. The vote for Senator was: Caraway (Democrat), 126,477; Cole (Republican), 65,381. The vote for Governor was: McRae (Democrat), 123, 604; Townsend (Republican), 46,339; Busler (Socialist), 4543; Blount (Negro), 15,627. The vote on constitutional amendments gave a majority for the initiative referendum, equal suffrage, and increase of the Supreme Court; but it was insufficient to carry the amendments, as the majority of the total vote cast at the election for Governor was required.

OFFICERS. Governor, Thomas C. McRae; Secretary of State, Ira C. Hopper; Attorney General, J. S. Utley; Treasurer, Joe Ferguson; Auditor, James Guy Tucker; Adjutant-General, Joe S. Harris; Superintendent of Public Instruction, J. L. Bond.

JUDICIARY. Supreme Court: Chief Justice, E. A. McCulloch; assistant justices, Carroll D. Wood: J. C. Hart; Frank G. Smith, T. H. Humphreys.

ARKANSAS, UNIVERSITY OF. A co-educational land grant State institution, at Fayetteville, Ark.; founded in 1871. There are colleges of arts and sciences, education, engineering, agriculture (including an experiment station), and medicine. The last-named is situated at Little Rock. The enrollment for the summer session was 556 and for the fall session, 1015. The faculty numbered 85. The income for the year was $315,766.15. There were 32,300 volumes in the library. President, John Clinton Futrall.

ARMAGH, JOHN BAPTIST CROZIER, Archbishop of. British prelate, died April 12th. He was born April 8, 1853, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he took honors. In 1887 he was made Canon of Down Cathedral and in 1896 Canon of St. Patrick's National Cathedral. From 1893 to 1897 he was chaplain to the LordLieutenant of Ireland. He became a bishop in 1897 and was appointed Archbishop of Armagh

in 1911.

ARMENIA. Before the war the term Armenia was indeterminate, being sometimes applied to the territory occupied by the Armenians within the former Turkish Empire and sometimes to the whole country in which the Armenians were the dominant race element, and which was partly in Russian territory. The Armenians of the Turkish Empire made up the minority in the five vilayets of Erzerum, Tiflis, Kharput, Diarbekr, and Sivas and were slightly in the majority in the vilayet of Van. It was estimated that they formed about 38.9 per cent of the population of these regions. Their present number is unknown owing to the massacres, deportations, and emigrations. As to the Armenians in Russia, they are now mainly included in the Armenian republic and were estimated in 1917 at 1,293,000. For the varying accounts of the massacres and deportations and the varying estimates of the losses thereby, see preceding YEAR BOOKS,

THE ARMENIAN REPUBLIC OF ERIVAN, proclaimed in May, 1919. The events immediately preceding the establishment of the present Armenian Republic may be briefly summarized: In Trans-Caucasia in the former Russian Empire the three main peoples were the Armenians, the Georgians, and the Tartars. On April 22, 1918, the Diet of Trans-Caucasia declared its independence of Russia, under the title of the Federal Republic of Trans-Caucasia, comprising Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. It had refused to recognize the Bolsheviki from the first and had formed a provincial government at Tiflis in February, 1918. This new federal republic soon split up into its three national parts, Georgia and Armenia declaring their independence. In May, 1918, the Armenian Republic was constituted in the territory comprising the southeastern frontiers of the Trans-Caucasian division of the Russian Empire, and in January, 1920, its independence was recognized by the Allies. The constitution was to be formed by a constituent assembly which was not only to make the fundamental law for this region but also for Turkish Armenia as soon as its limits could be determined. Thus the Armenian Republic in the year 1920 was a fragment of the former Russian government and was awaiting consolidation with the Armenians of the former Turkish Empire whose limits had not been fixed and were subject of discussion throughout the year (see WAR OF THE NATIONS). Its area was placed at 26,130 square miles. Various boundaries for Turkish Armenia were proposed, some of which would bring the total area of the state after adding the Turkish portion to about 80,000 square miles and others would bring the total area as high as 170,000 square miles. The population of the Armenian Republic was placed in 1917 at 2,159,000, of whom 1,416,000 were Christians. Most of the others were Mohammedans. After 1917, there was a great shifting of this population, owing chiefly to the departure of a portion of the Mohammedan element and the return of about 300,000 Armenians. The chief cities in the Republic are Erivan (90,000) and Alexandropol (50,000). Measures for nationalization were taken after the separation from Russia, and Armenian became the official language and the language of the schools. Compulsory military education. was introduced. See AGRICUL

TURE.

com

13

The mining industry of the Armenian Republic was represented by 22 copper-ore, rock-salt, and iron-pyrite enterprises, 18 of which exploited old mine workings. Seven copper smelters prised the metallurgical industry of the country. The average annual production during the years 1911, 1912, and 1913 was as follows: mines produced 154,900 metric tons of copper ore; 4 mines 10,000 tons of iron pyrites; 5 mines 25,400 tons of rock salt; and 7 smelters 6614 tons of copper metal. The first railway dates only from the year 1900, and the total length of the system in 1920 was not more than 370 miles. Seventeen mines and three smelters-that is to say, 71 per cent of these enterprises were without railway or even of metaled-road communications. The region's output of rock salt and iron pyrites represented 100 per cent of the production of the whole of Transcaucasia and its production of copper 69 per cent. Before the war the copper output of the region represented 20 per cent of Russia's total production. Official

information collected by the mines administration concerning the total mineral resources of the country showed that the mines, wells, etc., in the region numbered 450. Of this total 60 mines contained lead and silver, 10 gold, 210 copper, 11 zinc, 3 molybdenum, 1 antimony, 6 cobalt, 16 manganese, 58 iron, 1 chromium, 8 arsenic, 23 iron pyrites, 9 sulphur, 8 graphite, 47 coal and lignite, 1 jet, 4 combustible schist, 9 peat, 1 ozocerit, 32 rock salt, 1 carbonate of soda, 1 Glauber salt, 3 borax, and 15 alum. There were also 6 oil wells and 6 salt springs. The sources of revenue were state monopolies and indirect taxation. During the first five months of 1919, the revenue and expenditures balanced at 1,950,000 francs (ordinary budget) and the extraordinary expenditure was 4,650,000 francs. The army in 1919 was placed at a strength of 18,000 but in time of war it was said that this could be doubled.

The executive was in the hands of a cabinet of ministers (there being no president) as follows: Prime minister and minister of foreign affairs; and ministers of interior; public works; post and telegraphs: war; finance; commerce and industry; public education; and supplies and public charity. There was a chamber of eighty deputies (elected June, 1919, by universal suffrage) who also discharged certain executive functions. The prime minister in 1920 was M. Alexander Khatissian.

HISTORY.

ARMENIA AND THE TURKS. According to the leader of the Turkish Nationalist forces, Mustapha Kemal Pasha, the Armenians had maltreated the Mohammedans and the same complaint was made against the Government of Georgia. Accordingly on June 4th it was decided to send delegates to Moscow to protest against these acts. At the same time the Turkish forces were ordered to take the offensive against Armenia, in order to capture certain mountain passes, which controlled territory that had been guaranteed to Turkey by the treaties of Batum and Brest-Litovsk. At this time, however, confidential dispatches were received from the Soviet government saying that the frontiers of Persia, Armenia, and Turkey could be determined peacefully by the mediation of the Russian Soviet government, and therefore, that the Turks should not take the offensive. The Turks decided to proceed to the occupation of certain districts, including that of Kars, and ordered the eastern army to undertake the offensive as soon as possible. The campaign was interrupted by the arrival of a Russian agent through whom the Soviet government appealed for help in carrying out their own plans. The Soviet government then sent two divisions of the Russian army to the Caucasian front. These entered Azerbaijan where they were cordially welcomed and whence they began operations against Armenia and Georgia. Meanwhile the Bolsheviki were being defeated on the Polish front. With drawal of their troops from the east followed in order to reënforce the army engaged with Poland and a revolt was organized against the Bolsheviki in the East. Upon the withdrawal of the Soviet troops, the Armenians began operations and succeeded in capturing the coal fields of Olti. In August, the Armenians advanced to Julfa on the Persian frontier and the Turkish

forces retired to the south of the Arax River Turkish attacks, however, were renewed in the autumn in conjunction with the Bolshevist forces, and before the close of the year the Turks had captured Erivan.

ARMENIA AND THE BOLSHEVISTS. In spite of a peace settlement that had been signed at Tiflis, August 10, the Soviet forces along with Tartar marauders were, according to the Armenians, ravaging the Armenian frontier provinces, and about September 15th, the Armenian government sent protests on the subject to the government at Moscow. It was said that fifty Armenian villages had been ravaged. The Bolsheviki renewed their attacks in October. Mean while, they had entered into the alliance with the Turkish Nationalists noted above. The Soviet government demanded of the Armenian Republic free transit for Soviet troops across its territory, and the use of its railways. The Armenian government at first rejected these demands. But the combined Turkish and Bolshevist movement continued with increasing force and the Armenian government was obliged to sign in November an armistice providing for the withdrawal of troops from the west bank of the Arpa River and for the occupation of Alexandropol by the Turks. Great distress was reported among the inhabitants, who had gathered in large numbers in the barren highlands where they were threatened with starvation. It was said on November 11, that 100,000 refugees were roaming about without shelter, food, or clothing, that the cities were overcrowded with them, that in short, the country was facing absolute destitution. After the occupation, the Armenian Republic was proclaimed as a Soviet state. Meanwhile, there were signs of jealousy between the Soviet government and the Turkish Nationalists, and on November 25, the Moscow government warned the Turks against advancing further into Armenia. Both parties made appeals to the Armenian population, the Turks saying that they would grant favorable terms and the Soviet government giving assurance of protection from attack. Meanwhile, the Powers represented at the League of Nations were struggling with the question of the Armenian mandate.

ARMENIA AND THE POWERS. In the Geneva Assembly, Lord Robert Cecil appeared to express the general sentiment of that body when he said that the League of Nations would not represent the public morality of the world if it was unable to do anything toward saving the Armenian people. A resolution offered by the French delegate, M. Viviani, after an eloquent address was carried, calling upon the Council to arrange with some Power for the taking of measures that would stop the hostilities between the Armenians and the followers of Kemal. On November 25, the Council transmitted this resolution to the governments of all the members of the League and made a special request for mediation on the part of the Government of the United States. November 30, President Wilson replied that he would mediate through a representative. Meanwhile, according to the press, the Armenians were suffering at the hands of the Kurds and the Turkish Nationalists as much as ever. Moreover, the Bolshevists were said to be gaining the upper hand in the Armenian Republic. It was evident that the Soviet propaganda among the Armenians was successful. On November 11,

On

ARNOLD

the Armenian ministry which had taken part in the Treaty of Sèvres had been replaced by an extremist government, which had come to an understanding with the Soviet government with a view to concluding a new armistice with the Turks. On the same date, Tchitcherin sent a message to Krassin, the Soviet delegate at London, announcing that the Russian Soviet had proposed to mediate between Turkey and Armenia. On November 19th, the Bolshevist, commissary, M. Le Grand-and another delegateset out for Evrian, and while they were on their way, a new armistice was concluded by the Turks and Armenians and the hostilities came to an end. The terms proposed by the Turks as published by the newspapers were ostensibly not aimed at the destruction of Armenia. The Turks on the contrary, desired to maintain Armenian independence in order that the country might serve as a buffer state between Turkey and Russia. The Turks demanded first of all that Armenia should renounce the Treaty of Sèvres and that the frontier between Turkish and Armenian territory should be fixed by the two peoples concerned. Turkey desired that Armenia should abstain henceforth from making common cause with the Powers hostile to Turkey. The Turks demanded certain guarantees for the safety of the Moslems living in Armenian territory. This was the situation early in December when it was learned that President Wilson had chosen for his representative in the mediation, Mr. Morgenthau, former American ambassador to Turkey. Interest centred at the close of the year in the question of boundaries. It had not been definitely settled at the close of the year, but it was understood that the limits proposed by the President included less of Turkish territory than those previously proposed by the Allied prime ministers. The boundary according to the first reports was to run along the Black Sea at a point a little to the west of Tireboli through Mitikan, west of Mush, south to Lake Van to the frontier of Azerbaijan. The President's award did not include the vilayets of Diarbekr, Sivas, Harput, and Adana. The line was not determined for the eastern frontier adjoining Georgia and Azerbaijan, which was to be left for the Allies to determine by separate negotiations. Owing to the operations of the Bolsheviki and the Turkish Nationalists, conditions were confused at the close of the year, and in view of the action of Greece and the probable necessity of revising the treaty of Sèvres, the question of the boundaries of Armenia seemed likely to be re-opened in spite of the President's mediation. The Turkish Nationalists, who from the first had held control of Turkish Armenia, had overrun the Republic of Armenia and before the end of the year captured its chief cities, including the capital, Erivan. But the Russian Soviet government had obliged the Armenian Republic to submit to it. In fact Armenia was reported to be a virtual dependency of the Soviet government, which had already secured control over Azerbaijan, and was planning to do so over the Republic of Georgia. See WAR OF THE NATIONS.

ARMENIAN. See PHILOLOGY.

ARNOLD, LYNN JOHN. Lawyer and editor, died at Albany, N. Y., May 27. He was born at Burlington Flats, N. Y., September 28, 1864, and admitted to the New York bar in 1889. After a brief period of practice he was made

ASTRONOMY

surrogate of Otsego County in 1895. He was a prominent member of various commercial and legal associations and was president of the Knickerbocker Presɛ at Albany.

ARTERIES, HARDENING OF. See RADIUM. ARTERIOSCLEROSIS. See RADIUM. ARTILLERY. See MILITARY PROGRESS; NAVAL PROGRESS, etc.

ASHTABULA, OHIO. See MUNICIPAL Gov

ERNMENT.

ASIA. See CHINA; JAPAN; EXPLORATION; and other subdivisions.

ASIA MINOR. See ANATOLIA and TURKEY. ASPHALT. A preliminary estimate of the production and sales of asphalt and native bitumens and allied substances in the United States in 1919, issued by the United States Geological Survey, shows that asphalt produced from domestic petroleum amounted to 600,000 short tons, valued at $9,000,000, an apparent increase over 1918 of 72,425 tons and of $1,564,796, respectively. The asphalt produced from Mexican petroleum amounted to 672,000 short tons, valued at $7,917,000, an increase from 1918 of 21,756 tons in quantity and a decrease of $2,407,020 in value. About 115,000 short tons of native bitumens and allied substances valued at $1,000,000 was produced in 1919, an apparent increase over 1918 of 54,966 tons and of $219,192.

ASTRONOMY. The progress of astronomical research tends to centre about the work of the Mount Wilson Observatory, and here during the year 1920 were perfected instrumental methods of making celestial measurements far beyond the power of any apparatus hitherto available. The success of Michelson's interferometer attached to the 100-inch Hooker telescope, at Mount Wilson, was probably the most conspicuous event of the year. Other salient advances include the widespread use of radiotelegraphy in interchanging time-signals between observatories, for determining longitudes and for other purposes; increased knowledge of temporary stars and their meaning; and steady progress toward a sound knowledge of the structure of the stellar universe. There were no eclipses of special interest during the year; comets were uncommonly scarce; solar activity was not notable except for one brief outbreak; and the constant discussion of outstanding questions concerning the Einstein theory of relativity did not lead to any final results.

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY. "The 100-inch Hooker telescope," says Director Hale in his annual report, "yielding results that are of service in all departments of the observatory's work, has remained a centre of interest throughout the year. In light-gathering power, in the photographic registration of minute details of structure, and in the separation and measurement, by Michelson's interference method, of double stars previously unresolved, this instrument has responded admirably to a wide variety of tests. Altogether the most significant of the auxiliaries thus developed is Michelson's interferometer, which promises to play an important part in the future of sidereal astronomy. Its possibilities in this field were clearly foreseen and fully described by Michelson in 1890, and one of them was successfully tested by him in his measurement of the satellites of Jupiter in the following year. The fact that no astronomical applications of the method have since been made is not easily explained. Astronomers acquainted

with the extreme sensitiveness of the interferometer, and constantly hampered by atmospheric disturbances, have naturally feared that differences in optical paths would obliterate the fringes. But it turns out that they can be clearly observed with large apertures, even when the seeing is

poor.

"A crucial test was made September 18, 1919, when Professor Michelson, at the first trial on Altair, had no difficulty in seeing the fringes with the full aperture of the 60-inch and 100inch telescopes. The essence of the method lies in the use of two slits, symmetrically placed on either side of the axis of the telescope, and so mounted in a rotating support that their distances apart can be varied. As the mirror is otherwise covered, the only light entering into the focal image is that which passes through the slits. Observed with a high-power eyepiece (2000 to 10,000 diameters), the fringes appear as sharp, narrow lines on a fluctuating background. In a case like that of the close double star Capella, the components of which, about 0.05 apart, are not visible in any telescope, there are two independent sets of fringes, one due to each star. On rotating the disk carrying the slits, the visibility of the fringes is seen to vary with the position angle. When the line joining the slits corresponds with the line joining the stars, the slits are separated until the fringes of one set fall exactly between those of the other, causing minimum visibility, or complete disappearance if the two stars are of equal brightness. The distance between the slits then permits the angular distance between the stars to be computed with a precision greatly superior to that attained by the micrometric measurement of wide binaries. As an indication of this precision, it may be mentioned that the greatest difference between the observed and calculated positions of the components of Capella is fourthousandths of a second of arc."

The apparatus above described has since been improved by using two adjustable plane mirrors instead of slits, in combination with the 100-inch telescope, a large interferometer being attached to the upper end of the telescope tube. The enormous resolving power thus attained, corresponding to that theoretically pertaining to a telescope of about 40 feet aperture (i.e., five times as great an aperture as that of the largest telescope in the world), made possible the remarkable feat which, announced at the Chicago meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Dec. 29, 1920, attracted immense interest throughout the world. This was the measurement of the angular diameter of a star. The method was applied to the star Betelguese (Alpha Orionis). As the distance of this star is known from parallax measurements, its actual diameter is easily computed from the angular diameter measured with the interterometer, and turns out to be enormous; viz., about 260,000,000 miles. Thus its volume is about 37,000,000 times as great as that of the sun, and if placed at the centre of the solar system it would extend nearly to Mars.

Michelson's method appears to be applicable not only to measuring close binaries and stellar diameters, but also to securing more accurate results than have hitherto been attainable in the measurement of wider double stars, determinations of parallax and proper motion, the measurement of the displacement of a star caused by the

gravitational field of Jupiter (Einstein effect), and probably other refined measurements. In short, it seems to open up a new chapter in the history of astronomy.

In addition to his applications of the interferometer, Michelson has been carrying out at Mount Wilson a new determination of the velocity of light, which promises to yield results of the highest accuracy.

The great light-gathering power of the Hooker telescope, used in the ordinary way, is indicated by Professor Hale's statement that it "should add several hundreds of million stars to those already known." One use to which it is to be applied is in the measurement of the radiation of faint stars and the determination of the spectral-energy curves of brighter ones. It is proposed to have Dr. C. G. Abbot make such measurements with the bolometer. At present measurements of stellar radiation are being made with a new device known as a "thalofide cell," in which the sensitive substance, fused on a quartz disk and mounted in an evacuated tube, is composed of thallium, oxygen and sulphur. The continuation of Dr. Shapley's investigations of star-clusters has added further arguments in support of his view that the galactic system is much larger than was formerly supposed from consideration based on brighter stars. The use of an intensifying lens with the Hooker telescope has enabled him to photograph much fainter objects than could be reached formerly. He has also continued his studies of globular and open clusters, analyzed the characteristics of 1152 giant stars in 9 clusters, and determined the total intrinsic luminosities of 40 globular clusters, which he finds, on the average, to give 275,000 times as much light as the sun. Dr. Shapley's investigation of the faint globular cluster M 72 has revealed the presence of many variables, 26 of which have been studied, giving the light-curves and periods characteristic of Cepheids of the cluster type, and indicating that the distance of this very remote cluster is 83,000 light-years.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE STARS IN SPACE. The Dutch astronomers Kapetyn and Van Rhijn published a paper of exceptional interest which was put into popular language and otherwise elucidated by Prof. H. N. Russell in the Scientific American for October 30th. The following extract is from Russell: "Within a hundred lightyears of our sun, the stars appear to be scattered with fair uniformity in space. The number which lie within this distance, according to Kapetyn's new calculation, is 6200. The great majority of stars in any given region of space are fainter than the sun, and really bright stars are rare. For example, out of the 6200 stars nearer than 100 light-years, 790, or only oneeighth of the whole number, may be expected to exceed the sun in brightness. About 100 of these will be ten times as bright as the sun, or more; and only five or six will exceed 100 times the sun's brightness. Only one star in 50,000, on the average, is 1000 times as bright as the sun. Stars fainter than the sun constitute the majority of the whole-5410 out of the 6200 stars aforesaid. About 3400 of these will give out less than one-tenth as much light as the sun, leaving some 2000 in the intermediate region of brightness; and of the 3400, 2200 will be found to possess a luminosity between 10 per cent and 1 per cent of the sun's. Among the remaining