most important element in the Arabian world and its predominence in political discussions was probably due to the British interest and to the fact that most of the information came from British sources. The new state was a more or less artificial creation of the British, in that it could not have survived without British aid and a considerable British subsidy. Before the war the Turks ruled over the Hejaz, including the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina. They ruled also over Yemen, which comprised all Southern Arabia and is the largest of the Arab divisions, and they exercised a nominal authority in the provinces of Hassa and Kateef on the east coast. In Southern Arabia the power fell into the hands of one of the typical Arab conquerors before the war, Bin Saud, whose ruthless and able character secured him the throne and gave him power over a wider area of Arabia than any other chief. About this time that is, to shortly before the commencement of the great war-a brotherhood of Mohammedan religious reformers, the Ichwan, animated by a fanatical spirit, began to extend its influence. This grew with great rapidity until by the end of the war they became the real power in the country. They accepted as their religious and political head, Bin Saud, whose power thenceforth depended on their support. Before the war the British had been in possession of the Persian Gulf, which was policed. They made treaties with various Arab tribes and pursued a policy which successfully checked the advance of Turkey and the extension of German influence in the surrounding regions. There was strong anti-British feeling in parts of Arabia during the first part of the war, especially owing to Persian influence. Bin Saud, however, took the side of the British and his prestige was so great that even during the disasters of the first Mesopotamian campaign there was no hostile movement against the British in Arabia. Bin Saud strengthened his power by pacific means, including reconciliation with Bin Rashid, the representative of the dynasty mentioned above whose rivalry with his own had disturbed the country for the greater part of a century, and forming an alliance with the tribes of the Shemmar region. British money, as noted above, financed the revolt of Hussein, Sherif of Mecca, and brought the Hejaz kingdom into existence. The Turks thus lost all of Arabia, and there was thenceforth no danger from either Turks or German influence in the peninsula. Thus in Arabia itself there were two principal chiefs, Hussein, King of the Hejaz, and Bin Saud. The former according to the reports of travelers was not a man of great strength or extended influence, but on the contrary was lightly esteemed by the Arabs. The latter on the other hand, who was ruling nearly the whole of the country, was described as a remarkably vigorous ruler whose prestige was high, but whose power as already said depended upon the support of the Ichwan. The King of the Hejaz at first was inclined to despise the untrained troops of these fanatics but when they won over some of the inhabitants of his country and difficulties arose resulting in a battle, the forces of the reformers easily routed the Sherif's army, though the latter was far better equipped. The leaders of the fanatics threatened to attack the King and declared that without any doubt they could overcome him. By certain observers their forces were believed to be invincible so far as any merely Arab enemy Y-B-20-4

ARCHEOLOGY

was concerned; but Bin Saud insisted upon keeping the peace.

The situation after the war was briefly as follows: The British were supporting the King of the Hejaz and it was believed that in certain British quarters there was hope that he might be made caliph of the Mohammedan world upon the downfall of the Sultan. It was even said that a revolt on his part against the Sultan might not be objectionable to the British and that if it succeeded he would be generally recognized as his successor in the caliphate. On the other hand it was said that he was generally without influence in Arabia and in certain parts of the Moslem world was detested, as for example in India, where for some time the feeling had prevailed that it was a disgrace even to make pilgrimages to Mecca. Moreover, the general dislike of Mohammedans by the British naturally turned them against any protégé of the British authorities. This dislike was not founded upon reasonable criticism, but upon the pride of Mohammedans and their objection to being ruled by a people of alien race and faith. The position of the King of the Hejaz in 1920 was not believed to be secure. He had made the Ichwan his bitter enemies, and they would undoubtedly have already overthrown him, but for Bin Saud's intervention. The latter was also receiving a subsidy from the British government. It was a question whether he could maintain his prestige, which was said to depend on lavish expenditures of money in gifts.

In the autumn a special envoy was sent to Paris by the King of the Hejaz and at the same time it was planned to send special missions to the capitals of the other states of the Entente for the purpose of removing misunderstandings and strengthening the ties of friendship between the King and his allies. According to the representatives in Paris, the Hejaz government wished in every way the aid of the work of France in the East. According to the envoy King Hussein was earnestly seeking the friendship of France; his son, the Emir Faisal, had been sent on a mission by the King on a single occasion during the Peace Conference, but since then the Emir had acted only on his own account and the King was not responsible for acts committed by bands of nomads, who did not acknowledge his authority. For an account of Faisal's activities in Asia Minor and his relations with the French, see article, SYRIA. See also WAR OF THE NATIONS. ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. See INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND ARBITRATION.

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION. Se LABOR ARBITRATION.

ARCHEOLOGY. Although several years have passed since the closing of the war archæological exploration has not been thoroughly organized as yet. There are however several important pieces of work to be recorded in the various lands around the Mediterranean. The purpose of this work was to bring to light any important burials which might have been concealed by the drift. More interesting, from the popular point of view at least, was the arrangement in the Museum of the remarkable models discovered in the untouched tomb of Mehenkwetre. These most completely illustrate the service demanded by the mode of life of the princely classes in ancient Egypt. The work of Petrie at Illahûn concerned itself chiefly with clearing out the twelfth dynasty pyramid and

its surroundings. In the rubbish heap of the pyramid the excavators found the gold serpent which had been wrenched from the crown of Senusert II. The workmanship is fine, showing an inlay of colored stones and a head of lapis lazuli with eyes of garnet. In the tomb of a queen was found an unusual alabaster jar, 22 inches in height, bearing a magic inscription which states that all which is produced from the earth will be obtained from it. In the search of the contemporaneous cemetery the mastaba of the chief architect of Egypt, the builder of the pyramid at Illahûn, was found. Like those of the sixth dynasty it stood upon a hill with a chapel cut in the side of the hill. The front is colonnaded like the twelfth dynasty tombs of Beni Hasan. The most unexpected discovery was the small, untouched cemetery of the prehistoric period, dating from the fourth dynasty. In it were a hundred burials which show every stage from the plain open grave to the shaft tomb. Thirty different types were noted. The most important work of the Metropolitan Museum, noted above, was in the hill behind Shiekh 'Abd el-Kurneh (to the south of Deir el-Bahari). Here was found the eleventh dynasty tomb of the monarch Mehenkwetre, a small chamber containing a complete set of funerary models all beautifully preserved. These show gardens with pools, fruit trees and covered walks, granaries, slaughter houses, carpenter shops, breweries, bakeries, boats, etc., in fact in these models we have illustrated the elaborate service demanded by the life of a prince of that day. The tomb was discovered during the work of clearing away the drift that had accumulated in the bays of the cliffs of Deir el-Bahari. In the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings, at Thebes, to the south of the entrance to the tomb of Meneptah, Lord Carnarvon and Mr. Carter found some alabaster jars of large size and of a new style. Most of them bore the cartouche of Meneptah while some belonged to the time of Rameses II.

At Carchemish in Northern Syría C. L. Wooley, acting for the British Museum, resumed the excavations begun in 1914, but interrupted by the war. Excavations were undertaken on the site of the double ring of the city walls. On the land side all the gates, the fortifications of the acropolis, as well as the great river wall which still holds back the Euphrates River were cleared out. The work has demonstrated that there are four periods of construction, and the results should throw light on the 100 sculptured slabs, etc., that were found before the war. In addition the excavators turned up new sculptures and inscriptions. A grave of the royal period was also discovered. At Ascalon, under the direction of Garstang, the Palestine Exploration Fund began its excavations on September 9th. Preparatory diggings brought to light two architectural statues and an imposing Victory standing on the earth. These had already been known in Turkish times. During this excavation was turned up a white marble statue of a kneeling girl of one quality. The search for the Temple of Fortune has been begun and extensive preparations have been made for the exploration of the Philistine mound.

At Mycenae, in Greece, Wace, acting for the British School in Athens, has carried on a thorough examination of the circle of graves just within the Lion Gate. The investigation has shown that Mycena was already inhabited at

the end of the Neolithic age and was a flourishing city in the years reaching from 2000 to 1500 B.C. To the end of this period belong the graves within the circle. The latest of these graves date in the late Helladic period. Excavations on the acropolis have shown that the palace was of a much more extensive plan than is usually supposed. Evidence for at least two stories was discovered. It was also found that much later, after Cnossus had fallen, the city was fortified with a wall which was carefully carried around the circle of graves. At that time the enclosure was filled in, leveled, and surrounded by the double wall of slabs now seen there, and new gravestones placed in position to replace the earlier ones. Between this circle and the Lion gate a large building, probably a granary, was brought to light. In it were found a number of vases which fall stylistically between. the Mycenaean and Geometric wares and thus fill in a gap in Greek pottery. The excavators also explored the well-known Treasury of Atreus, finding under the threshold of the main chamber a small deposit of gold leaf. beads, and ivories, together with a fragment of late Mycenæan ware. The tomb therefore may be dated in the period from 1400-1200 B.C. This is the traditional date for the dynasty of Atreus and goes to show that there is an element of truth in Greek legend.

At Cyrene, in Africa, work has been carried on. Inscriptions have been found which show that the temple thought to be that of Apollo was in fact dedicated to the emperor Hadrian. In the agora was found a circular building which served as a meeting place for the priestesses of Hera.

In Italy excavations have been conducted at Veii, Vetulonia, and Castellina in the Chianti Valley, near Florence. These have brought to light remarkable examples of Etruscan architecture, sculpture, and bronze work, e.g. bronze helmets from Vetulonia, a dancing faun from the same site, and a fine life-sized sixth-century Apollo in painted terra cotta from Veii.

ARCHITECTURE. As in 1919, any attempt to chronicle the architecural activity of 1920 finds itself inseparably bound up with considerations of building, as regards both labor and materials, and, in New York especially, as regards certain legislation respecting building.

Many buildings have been carried through to completion in spite of adverse conditions and high wages and high costs of material, but even more, especially in residential work, have been deferred or suspended until more favorable building conditions prevail.

Unsettled building conditions, as a matter of fact, have endured for a longer time after the Armistice than was generally anticipated, and it is only at the present writing in January, 1921, that a return to conditions in any sense normal can be recorded.

Manufacturers of building materials are reported as being rather cautious about 1921, in view of the general tendency of dealers to unload costly stocks in anticipation of probable price reductions. The willingness of distributors of building materials to take losses on stocks in hand reflects their aim to encourage a more general resumption of building activity early in 1921.

Building materials showing a decline in price as of January, 1921, include asphaltum, certain

ARCHITECTURE

kinds of face brick, window and plate glass, sheet-iron and plaster-board. In lumber, price reductions are also seen in ash, basswood, plain and quartered oak, North Carolina pine, studding, rafters, ceiling and partition lumber and all hardwood flooring, including yellow pine. The condition suggests a general house-cleaning on the part of dealers, in anticipation of lower manufacturing prices, and the manufacturer, realizing that decrease in material prices will stimulate building, is faced with the problem of developing his production resources in such a way as neither to overstock nor to be caught later in the year with production and supply in adequate to meet a great demand.

The diverting of materials and labor to construction work connected with the war naturally created certain conditions which are still with us as a post-war legacy-notably the housing problem. The high cost of war-time and postwar building at once involved the element of finance, and various legislative proposals of a remedial nature were made with a view to relieving the shortage of apartment houses and dwellings-especially acute in and around New York City. Many of the measures suggested were unfair to property owners, and when the banks were consulted there was found to be a great reluctance to finance building projects on account of the low return on the investment.

The State Legislature rejected a group of proposals presented by Governor Smith, and the reaction at Albany appeared to take the form of a statement that housing should be regarded as a Municipal concern, and not a State concern. Among numerous proposals in this group was that of New York City Municipal Loans for building purposes, and with it went the constructive proposal to constitute building loans and mortgages as exempt from taxation.

A committee on housing was appointed (the Lockwood Committee) and in its initial investigations of the entire question, it undertook to look into certain alleged combines for price maintenance among the building industries. As the investigation progressed, an astoundingly scandalous condition came to light. The work of the committee commenced in Oct. 20, 1920, and Samuel Untermeyer, the attorney, at the opening of the third session said:

"Now, what we intend to show is a banding together among the material men, first, in separate associations in each of 32 lines engaged in building materials, from the manufacturer down to the retailer; and then the banding together of the different associations under the head of the Building Materials Employers' Association; and then we propose to show that not only has labor been dragnetted into the Building Trades Council in many instances, but that employers have been dragnetted and forced into certain of these associations by the relation that exists between the Building Trades Council and the Building Trades Employers' Association."

In the course of testimony from a long list of witnesses, evidence came to light which disclosed a far-reaching and intricate condition of corruption, bribery, and coercion a condition plainly making against the progress and normal expansion of building. Many indictments are called for, and at the present writing the hearings of the committee are still continuing and the final outcome of the investigations cannot be recorded.

On May 5, 1920, the annual convention of the American Institute of Architects was held in Washington, D. C. These conventions are of marked importance in that the reports of their several committees represent inquiries and investigations of nation-wide scope and significance, and the subjects assigned to the different committees are designed to be of great constructive aid to the entire architectural profession.

At this 53rd convention reports were received on (1) Education, with recommendation to extend the usual four-year course for students; (2) structural service; (3) small houses, a new committee being appointed to study the whole subject and problem of financing small houses; (4) competitions; (5) schedule of charges, considering the question of raising the architects' fee from 6 per cent to 8 per cent, referred back to the State Chapters for study during 1921; (6) jurisdictional disputes; (7) community planning.

Another interesting report was reviewedthe report of the American Institute's Post-War Committee, which was appointed to inquire into and report on conditions and problems of architectural practice as found to exist after the war. The accomplishment of this committee is of distinct interest, and so germane to the purpose of this review that the following notes are given at length from the Journal of the American Institute of Architects:

a. The committee received and tabulated under separate headings a mass of opinion, suggestion, and criticism from individuals and societies bearing on various phases of the problems confronting the architectural profession.

b. Establishment of a point of contact and machinery for coöperation between organized labor, building and engineers.

c. Establishment of a definite basis for cooperation between organized labor, building contractors, and engineers which, it is hoped, will be an opening wedge to more sympathetic understanding between these great elements in the building industry.

d. Laid foundations for closer association with the building industry through participation in the Conference of the National Federation of Construction Industries.

e. Placed an argument for Registration of Architects, with practical data for Registration Laws in the hands of organizations and individuals in nearly every state in the union.

f. Placed the question of the organization of State societies, together with an outline of the experiences of states having such societies, and also a form of Constitution and By-Laws in practically every State in the Union, through the membership of the Post-War Committee.

g. Started a larger body of architects thinking concurrently along formulated lines of study than ever before.

h. Developed a form of organization that has many features to recommend it as a workable machine for carrying on educational effort of national scope.

i. It has developed, through the effort of the special Post-War Committee of the Washington State Chapter a chart indicating desirable fields for investigation in the study of problems affecting the proposition of architecture.

j. It has laid the basis for an international professional relationship, by correspondence and interchange of documents and information.