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also a biological truth that the struggle is greatest between the members of the same species. It is also not necessary that each individual partner should be conscious of the common goal, provided his conduct tends that way. His motives may be wrong, but his conduct must be right. Correct motives provide, however, some guarantee of persistency of conduct. The individual lives for himself, but in so doing must serve others. Selfishness necessarily generates altruism. The chalk cliffs of the infusoria are the result of the individualistic action of each of the infusoria, the infusorium being typical of egoism. Baldwin discriminates between the substance, content, stuff, or material of society, and the functional method or process of organization of the social material. He describes the social substance or content as follows: "The matter of social organization consists of thoughts; by which is meant all sorts of intellectual states, such as imagination, knowledge, and informations." This "matter," he thinks, is found only in social groups, which alone, therefore, can be called societies. Animal communities he would call "companies." The functional method or process of organization of the social material he finds in the process of imitation which is subjectively contained in the "dialectic of personal growth."

It is evident that the "substance, content, stuff, or material" of society is not the consciousness of kind, as Giddings affirms; neither can it be said that the functional method or process of organization of the social material is mainly a process of imitation, as Baldwin asserts. The process is rather that of division. of labor, using that term to indicate both the process of differentiation and integration. The transmission of the social heritage, the introduction of the young into adult social ways, may and does involve a large amount of imitation, but even there, again, it should be remarked that imitation is but one subdivision of the larger process of suggestion. Suggestion may be one of the methods by which the young acquire social ways, but it does not therefore rise to the supreme rank and importance of the social way itself. Again, imitation, and in a still larger way suggestion in all its forms, is one method of social service, as, for instance, in 1IHERING, Der Zweck im Recht, 3d ed. (Leipzig, 1893), p. 467.

the influence exerted by leaders, reformers, and their likes. It is, however, not to be confounded with the larger and more fundamental process of division of labor. It is brilliant, but wholly inadequate, to say with Tarde, "Socialité, c'est l'imitativité."

The most useful variation tends to survive, and hence Bailey's term, "the survival of the unlike." Variation is one of the most important processes in nature, for on this process are built the innumerable possibilities of the division of labor. Darwin's problem was, of course, the origin of differences. Linnæus, if he were still to pursue his plan of an inventory of nature as a species of natural bookkeeping, would be appalled at the number of species. Instead of the very modest forty thousand species comprising the sum total of all living species as computed by Biberg, writing in 1749 in Linnæus's Amoenitates Academicae, Riley concludes that "to say that there are ten million species of insects in the world would be, in my judgment, a moderate estimate." The differentiation process is proceeding as rapidly as at any period in time past; in fact, the strong probability is that it is increasing more rapidly. That organism is likely to spread most rapidly which differs most widely from all its fellows, because the field is free of competitors and there is the least impediment to its progress. This principle has been called by Darwin the divergence of character. A new character, or a new combination of characters, in any organism may tend to give such an organism an immense advantage because of the monopoly-privileges it enjoys. Freedom and liberty is the toleration of differences, affording a chance for natural or acquired aptitudes. A variation is generally useful because it accomplishes something new, something which the homogeneous mass could not do before the variation occurred. Progress is generally such differential interstitial growth.

Differentiation, however, is not invariably the open sesame to success. The secret of success lies in the degree of adaptation, and success, it may again be repeated, must be interpreted in terms of survival. We commonly say that when certain. plants are transferred northward they tend to degenerate by TARDE, Les lois de l'imitation, p. 75.

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becoming dwarfed and by losing some of their highly developed specialities. They have a tendency, like old varieties of plants, to assume some primitive or inferior type. Degeneracy or deterioration is, however, a relative term, return to a simpler form, i. e., a decrease in the differentiation of the plant, being often the successful means employed to secure a further lease of life. In the same way with human beings, poverty often places an embargo on differentiation. The highly developed individual, stricken with poverty, must needs forego the satisfaction of many tastes, and revert to a more common and primitive type. The utility of differentiation is, however, manifest on all sides. Death entered into the world with all its blessings, the old undying types giving place to the possibility of an everincreasing variation. Sex entered, according to Weissmann, and increased the number of combinations and variations. Plants become annuals and biennials from a perennial condition. Changes in the plant and animal world meet the changes of the seasons, the temperature, the food supply, and the changing demands of the rest of the plant and animal world. Bailey suggestively remarks that the development of life took two divergent lines that of the circular arrangement of parts and that of bilateralism. The first line, developing in obedience to a peripheral or rotate type of organization, ends in the echinoderms and some of the mollusks. This type reached its zenith and, according to Cope, has left no line of descent. The progressive and regnant type of animal life appeared in the vermes, or true worms, forms which are characterized by a two-sided or bilateral, and therefore more or less longitudinal, structure. By this means greater differentiation was made possible. A cephalic or head-forming evolution resulted from the bilateralism, and a specialization of the senses and central nervous system without parallel ensued. The extensive specialization of the sense and motor organs of the body, although marvelous, is carried to still greater limits by means of extra-organic instruments. The evolution of organs is continued in technic.1

The differentiation being given, integration or organization 'OTTO WIENER, Die Erweiterung unserer Sinne, Leipzig, 1900.

becomes possible. The more absolutely alike the parts may be, the less likelihood there will be of a superior organization. The Quakers, for instance, possess little capacity for political organization, because of the uniformity of the individuals of that persuasion. The benefits accruing from division of labor are lost, viz., the avoidance of waste effort, the increase in amount of work performed, the improvement in quality, the adaptation of the work to the natural aptitude of the workers, the greater security of the species or society, etc. Thus integration may not necessarily mean the introduction of a caste or military system; it may not follow as a logical consequence that there is an Ueber- and Untereinander, but it does imply a Miteinander. may not necessitate equality or similarity of parts, but it does imply efficiency of service of the parts, which efficiency is generally in proportion to the difference in the parts. The survival of the unlike defines the fittest to be the unlike, and if, as Roux says, there is a Kampf der Theile, it is, we may add, im Interesse des Ganzen. Every man is his brother's keeper in the sense that each specialist must needs be supported by other specialists. Organizations, institutions, culture, and civilization must be defined, not as products of interaction, but as such and such interactions of different parts.

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UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO.

ARTHUR ALlin.

'Hegel's statement that he who pursues a special occupation or profession does not lower himself, but only thus becomes ein rechter Mensch, has much truth in it.

THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY IN INSTITUTIONS OF

LEARNING IN THE UNITED STATES. II.

SUMMING up the results on the present study of sociology, we find that 169 different men's colleges give some attention to sociology, while 150 of these give the equivalent of one course or more in the subject. In the women's colleges, 16 treat sociology. A total of 45 colleges and universities give fairly adequate treatment of the subject, offering three or more different courses covering various subdivisions of the sociological field. There is, however, no university in the United States in which the whole field of sociology is adequately covered. The nearest approach to such treatment is at the University of Chicago, Yale University, and Columbia University. Besides the institutions mentioned above, sociology is gradually making its way into technological institutions, normal schools, and theological institutions. The growth of such study in normal schools is most marked, while theological institutions are not making as rapid progress as seemed probable a few years ago. The technical colleges are just awakening to the advisability of treating a subject apparently so remote from a purely technical curriculum.

Our only basis of comparison, in determining the growth of sociological study, is Mr. Folkmar's report of 1894. He found "29 colleges having regular courses in sociology, using the term in the looser sense to include charities and corrections, while 24 have sociology proper, defining the term as the study of society. These figures do not include the institutions that give instruction in charities and correction, or the science of society, incidentally to ethics, economics, etc. Of this sort there are 6 more in sociology, and 20 in charities and correction, some of which give quite extended instruction in these subjects. Five of the 8 women's colleges reporting give courses in sociology, some of them being well equipped, while 4 have courses in charities and correction. Eleven colleges give the number of students, which ranges from 8 to 250 in each course, or an average of 50. The

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