has in fact been raised as an additional factor of comparison. However, it appears appropriate to focus less attention on the financial structure of an educational or training institution and, instead, to examine more closely student needs, the nature of the programs, and the competence of instructors.

This approach could lead to a clearer differentiation between the two types of institutions. Perhaps it would then be concluded that colleges and vocational schools are "noncompeting groups," to be evaluated on the basis of their comparative excellence in instructional programs and the performance of their graduates on the job. (Colleges and universities should naturally be supported in their search for excellence in those fields of study that are not directly related to ultimate employment.)

Estimated Number of Schools and Students

The first serious attempt to estimate the number of private vocational schools and to consider their programs was made in 1964. Drs. Clark and Sloan estimated that there were more than 35,000 schools, with an enrollment exceeding five million.2 However, these figures included schools offering both vocational and leisuretime training programs.

The author's study on which this paper is based disclosed a total of 7,000 private schools limited to to vocational education and serving approximately 1.5 million students during 1966.3 These conservative estimates were divided into the following four broad occupational categories:

2H.F. Clark and H.S. Sloan, Classrooms on Main Street (New York: Teachers College Press, 1966), p. 4.

3 Private Vocational Schools and Their Students: Limited Objectives, Unlimited Opportunities (Cambridge: Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc., 1969), p. 9.

The above figures were based upon responses to a written questionnaire by 1,200 schools and upon supplemental information provided by associations of the four types of schools. The number of cosmetology and barber schools was exact because their respective associations conduct an annual census. In 1966 the United Business Schools Association had a membership of 500 schools offering secretarial, accounting, business administration, and other courses; and it maintained a record of 800 nonmember business schools. The National Association of Trade and Technical Schools (NATTS), established in 1965, had only 200 member schools, but the Association's mailing list was several times that number.

As shown above, the majority of students attended trade and technical schools. Added to the enrollment in business schools, these two categories accounted for 80 percent of all students. However, the cosmetology and barber schools are quantitatively important because they train most of the persons entering such occupations.

The data also revealed that the average annual enrollment in each type of occupational training school was rather small. Less than 5 percent of the schools enrolled more than 2,000 students annually. The average business school enrolled less than 350 students annually; this exceeded the average enrollment in the trade and technical schools by 20 percent and was much greater than the typical enrollments in the cosmetology and barber schools.

One explanation for the small size of most of these schools is related to the importance assigned to practical, problem-solving aspects in the courses. It follows that only a short period of time is spent in large classrooms, and the costs of adequate space and machinery in shop and laboratory settings necessarily limit the size of a school building and its staff. Second, the schools are widely distributed geographically-often either located in cities with less than 100,000 persons or situated within sections. of a large metropolitan area. A third reason is that the trade and technical schools (the primary focus of attention in this study) tend to train for single or related occupations. Nevertheless, collectively, the large number of highly specialized trade and technical schools offer the greatest diversity of courses.

Although most private schools operate on a year-round basis and offer both day and evening sessions, the capacity for expanding enrollment appears. to be sizable. The possibilities for growth are primarily due to the underutilization of staff and facilities in afternoon and evening classes. According to a survey of NATTS members, the schools were operating at only 60 percent of their capacity. On the basis of this estimate, all trade

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and technical schools could accommodate an additional one-half million students.4

Some of the salient features of the home study or correspondence schools must be at least noted, even though such schools undoubtedly merit a much more extensive survey.

The National Home Study Council, with a membership of 120 accredited schools, is the principal association for these schools. (Some of the schools have vocational school divisions similar to those considered in this study.) Accreditation is provided by the Council's Accrediting Commission, which is recognized by the U.S. Office of Education. There are also approximately 500 nonaccredited correspondence schools. Unlike the members of the National Home Study Council, the nonaccredited schools do not always require examinations and frequent "exchange" between school and student.

Since homes serve, in effect, as a substitute for classrooms, the number of correspondence schools is much smaller than the estimated total of private vocational schools, and the enrollments are considerably larger. One international correspondence school has had more than 100,000 students during each of the past five years. The National Home Study Council members have students in every state, and their total enrollment is equal to that of the private vocational schools. When the enrollments in nonaccredited schools and the Armed Forces are added to those of the Council, the aggregate figure is five million students.

The total number of subjects taught by correspondence is about 600 and includes vocational subjects, high school courses, and college-level Students can naturally hold jobs and learn at their own desired

courses.

pace.

Types of Courses Offered in Trade and Technical Schools

The variety of occupational courses found in private trade and technical schools reflects the unique ability of these schools to respond to the training needs of many industries and professions. About 230 different occupational courses were offered in the more than 500 trade and technical schools examined in this study.5 Since most schools offered more than one course, the

4Ibid., p. 46.

This estimate excludes the unused capacity in business, barber, and cosmetology schools.

5Ibid., pp. 13-14.

total number of courses provided by these schools was nearly 1,500.

The six major vocational categories (based on the number of courses

Less than 60 percent of all reported courses are included in the above categories. The three largest areas of training (data processing, electronics, and medical services) are acknowledged to be growth fields in most manpower projections. The other three categories cannot necessarily be designated "traditional," because drafting may be allied with the electronics industry and a radio-TV course may emphasize the repair of color television sets. Even automobile repair offers numerous employment openings for competent workers.

Other important training fields include courses in commercial arts; construction; fashion design; needle trades; shoemaking; food preparation, processing, retailing, and service; interior design and related services; machine shop; major and minor appliance repair and servicing; photography; printing; promotion, sales, and related services; tool and die design; various forms of transportation and traffic management; and welding. Finally, courses in aerospace engineering technology, waste and wastewater reconversion, gardening, hotel-motel operation, and many others though listed by only a few schools, are areas of growing job opportunities.

Not all of the courses (see list in Appendix) are equivalent to generally accepted occupational designations. However, occupational breakdowns are necessarily somewhat arbitrary, and personal differences are evident with respect to vocational interest, ability, and willingness to devote the required time to what is regarded as ideal, well-rounded training.

The great variety of occupational training is matched by a wide diversity in course length and, quite expectedly, in tuition. Tuition ranged from about

$100 to $4,500 and averaged nearly $1,200 annually for the courses offered by the members of NATTS in 1966.

Aspects of Instruction

The instruction in private vocational schools is highly specialized, with a view to the final employment objective. Therefore, the schools maintain close but informal contacts with employers. Course content is readily modified to reflect pertinent changes that are reported to school officials by employers. Decisions to add improved facilities can also be made rapidly and directly. This differs from the delays often encountered by public schools and colleges that must seek approval from school boards or legislatures.

Training is provided in a job-simulated setting. Visual aids and operative equipment of all types are typically more important than textbooks. Classroom or lecture instruction is usually followed immediately by supplementary training in the school shop, laboratory, kitchen, or "department store" in order to demonstrate the practical application of theoretical concepts. Most schools also arrange student visits to plants and offices. Modest home assignments are required for many courses because only those theoretical concepts which are relevant to the performance of a job are taught.

The emphasis upon the functional phases of instruction represents more than an adaptation to the actual requirements of an ultimate job. It also reflects the minimum level of formal education that is required for admission to the schools. A substantial percentage of all schools accept students who have not completed high school. At least 10 percent of the business schools offer a minimum of one course that calls for less than a high school education for admission. Approximately 40 percent of the trade and technical schools provide at least one course that does not require completion of high school. Educational requirements for admission to barber and cosmetology schools are lower still; less than 10 percent of these schools require high school graduation or its equivalent.

The private vocational schools have also devised methods for motivating many of their students who found the general education program in high school unstimulating. Hence, course materials are presented in short, sequential units which reinforce previously learned materials. A sense of achievement is experienced by the typical student because he is informed of his progress on a continuing basis rather than at the conclusion of a

term or semester.

6Ibid., pp. 28-32.