Chili.

Chili, a republic of South America, area 2,319,266 square miles, population, 1875, 2,075,971, to which should be added omissions, 10 per cent, and about 50,000 Indians, is a mountainous country subject to frequent earthquakes. It has almost every variety of climate, its long narrow territory extending from the hot deserts near the equator to the cold and wet region within twelve degrees of the Antarctic Circle. One quarter of the country is near the level of the sea, while the great Andes range of mountains rise far above the line of perpetual snow, their mean elevation being 11,830 feet, and the highest peak (Aconcagua) 22,427 feet.

Chili, originally a Spanish settlement, became independent in 1810-'17. By the constitution of 1833 the legislative power is in a National Congress composed of 37 members, elected for six years, and a Chamber of Deputies, 109 members, for three years. Suffrage is universal to citizens able to read and write and paying a small annual tax.

The executive power resides in a President elected for five years, a council of state, and five cabinet ministers, having salaries of $6,000 each.

The national debt in 1879 amounted to $79,452,490, mostly contracted in England for the construction of railways. The revenue for 1879 was $16,001,463, one half derived from customs and monopolies; and the expenditure $17,496,922. The commerce of Chili is considerable, the exports being $37,771,440 in 1876, and the imports $35,291,112, nearly one half the commerce being with Great Britain.

Agriculture flourishes, although about 82 per cent of the entire surface is desert, pasture, or forests, with only 18 per cent arable land. Wheat is the most important product, the crop averaging ten million bushels, two thirds of which is exported.

Chili is rich in gold, silver, and especially in copper.

The army, reduced in 1875 to 3500 men, was largely increased in 1879 on account of the Peruvian war.

The navy consists of 10 or 12 steam vessels, manned by 1800 men.

Education is largely aided by government, which supports 810 schools through the country, besides lyceums and the University of Chili, an invaluable government institution, with 700 students, 37 professors, and free instruction.

The Roman Catholic religion is recognized by the constitution, but the public profession of other forms is tolerated.

China.

China, an immense empire in Asia, area 1,554,000 square miles, popula

tion 405,000,000 (estimated), has of late years opened diplomatic and commercial intercourse with other nations. It includes Tibet, Mongolia, and Manchuria, besides China proper; the country abounds in numerous rivers, forming the chief highways of the empire. The government is a patriarchal despotism, the Emperor being an autocrat, whose sway is limited only by the sacred right of rebellion. Its vast and productive territory is larger than that of any nation except Russia, and its civilization, the most ancient in the world, has peculiarities unknown to the civilizations of Europe or America. The exclusiveness which long made China a sealed book is slowly giving way, and the empire now sends its ministers to the United States, England, France, Germany, Russia, Spain, the West Indies, and Japan; but the Chinese government still refuses to open the empire to railroads and telegraphs, and destroyed in 1877 the first and only railway laid in the empire; and only 14 of its numerous ports are open to foreign trade. The imports in 1876 were $105,360,000, and the exports $122,360,000; about onethird of the commerce is with Great Britain; silk and tea make up threefourths of the exports, while opium and cotton goods constitute two-thirds of the imports. No certain information regarding Chinese finances exists, but the revenues were estimated in 1875 at $126,000,000; the public debt is of unknown amount, being wholly domestic, except one foreign loan of $3,135,000 at 8 per cent recently contracted, and guaranteed by the customs receipts.

The army of China has 270,000 men organized after the European custom, while on paper the military force is set down 800,000 Chinese and 271,000 Manchoos. The navy embraces 38 vessels.

Colombia.

Colombia (the United States of) is a confederated republic in South America, including a large part of what was called New Granada; area 500,000 square miles; population, 1870, 2,950,017, besides about 100,000 wild Indians. Its present political organization dates from 1863. The largest city is Bogota, the capital, with 50,000 inhabitants, and Panama has about 20,000.,

The legislative power resides in a Senate of 27 members, and a Representative Chamber of 61, elected by general suffrage. The executive power is exercised by a President chosen for two years by the people of the different States, and by four ministers. The revenue is very small, amounting in 1878 to only $4,838,800, two-thirds of which was from customs. The expenditure was $7,271,933 in 1878. The public debt amounted to

$15,999,304 in 1878, imports in 1877 to $6,709,109; exports, $10,049,071.

Coffee, cotton, tobacco, and cinchona bark form a large part of the exports, and agriculture is the leading industry. Only two railways are in operation, the Panama line across the Isthmus, 46 miles, being the principal. Telegraphs, 1,520 miles. Letters carried by post-office, 358,254.

Colombia has no navy, and the army in time of peace musters only 1,420 men. Education has been recently much improved, the law of 1870 transferring it from the hands of the clergy to the State, and requiring compulsory instruction, the general government subsidizing the States to maintain schools. Religious freedom prevails, there being no State church, though the predominant religion is Roman Catholic.

Costa Rica.

Costa Rica, the most southern republic of Central America, area 21,495 square miles, population in 1874, 185,000, mostly of Spanish descent, with very slight foreign elements.

It is divided into six provinces, the government being vested in a President elected for 4 years, two Vice-Presidents and four ministers. The legislative power is in a Congress of Deputies chosen for 4 years.

The revenue for fiscal year 1878, $3,819,211,one-third of which is derived from the monopoly of tobacco and brandy by the government, the rest from customs and various taxes. The expenditure was $3,904,657, and the public debt $12,000,000. The exports of 1878 were $6,187,062, of which coffee alone amounted to about $4,450,000; the imports were $3,116,290, chiefly manufactures from England.

There is no standing army except 900 soldiers of the militia, which comprises 16,370 men, or all between the age of 15 and 30. The State religion is Roman Catholic, but full religious liberty is guaranteed by the Constitution. The soil is extremely fertile; there are vast forests of mahogany, ebony, Brazil-wood, and India-rubber trees, and the climate fosters almost all the fruits of the tropic and temperate zones, about 1,100 square miles being under cultivation. Railways, 36 miles; telegraphs, 193 miles.

Cuba.

Cuba, a colony of Spain, in the West Indies, having 72,000 square miles; population, 1876, 1,414,508, half of whom are blacks, and 8 per cent slaves. The island is governed by a Captain General, appointed by the Spanish crown. Its great staple is sugar, of which 620,000 to 800,000 tons are annually exported, two-thirds of it to the United States besides 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 gallons of molasses.

Denmark.

Denmark, (area 14,553 square miles; population, 1870, 1,912,142), is a constitutional kingdom, occupying an almost insular position between the North Sea and the Baltic. The climate is like that of Scotland in the same latitude, the mean temperature of the year being 47° at Copenhagen. The constitutional charter of 1850, vests the legislative power in the Reichsdag, consisting of a Folksthing, 102 members, and a Landsthing, 66 members (1850 charter amended in 1866). The Folksthing are elected for three years by universal suffrage, and the Landsthing for eight years by electoral districts, except 12 members who are nominated for life by the King. King, Christian IX.; Minister of Finance, J. B. S. Estrup; Minister of the Interior, E. V. R. de Speel; Minister of Justice, J. M. V. Nellemann; Minister of Worship and Public Instruction, J. C. H. Fischer; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Baron de Rosenarn-Lehn; Minister of War and Marine, J. C. F. Dreyer. The budget for 1878-9 included receipts $13,800,000, of which no less than $8,300,000 were from indirect taxes, and $2,300,000 from direct taxes. The expenditure was $13,200,000, onefourth of which was on account of the national debt, which amounted in 1877 to $25,250,000.

The army (recruited by conscription) embraces 35,975 men, besides a reserve of 15,258. The navy in 1876 included 33 steam vessels with 230 guns, and 29 sail vessels.

The commerce of Denmark in 1876 comprised $77,000,000 imports, and $63,000,000 exports, the exports chiefly grain.

There are 700 miles of railway, twothirds of which are operated by the State. The government telegraph embraces 1,650 miles, which transmitted a total of 940,655 dispatches in 1876. The postal system in 1876 transmitted 20,088,138 letters and 19,318,353 newspapers.

The established church of Denmark is the Lutheran-Protestant-Roman Catholics having been but recently tolerated in Scandinavia.

By the census of 1870 there were, Lutherans, 1,777,000; Jews, 4,300; Bap tists, 3,200; Mormons, 2,200; Roman Catholics, 1,800.

Education is highly developed by the compulsory system, and almost all the lower classes can read and write.

Ecuador.

Ecuador, a South American republic, traversed by the equator, from which it takes its name, area 248,580 square miles, population 946,033 (estimated), besides about 200,000 Indians; capital, Quito, has about 80,000 peo ple; Guayaquil, the principal seaport, 26,000. Quito is the loftiest inhabited

city, 9500 feet above the sea. The country is traversed by the two vast mountain ranges of the Cordilleras, reaching to a height of 18,000 feet, full of noble volcanic summits, and divided by magnificent valleys. Cotopaxi and Chimborazo are capped with perpetual snow.

The government is vested in a President, chosen by 900 electors appointed by popular vote, the Vice-President, who is Minister of the Interior, and three other cabinet officers. The Congress consists of a Senate of sixteen and a House of thirty members chosen by popular suffrage. The army has only 1200 men, and the navy three small steamers. The finances, which are in a state of chronic deficit, represented in 1876 revenues (half derived from customs) amounting to $2,317,000, expenditures $3,360,000. The public debt in 1877 was $22,938,000.

Roads are almost unknown in Ecuador, being mostly mere mule tracks, impassable for several months of the year; all transportation of goods is on the backs of mules, wheeled conveyances being almost unknown. There are thirty miles of railway.

The principal article of export is cocoa, amounting to $3,539,641 in 1876, out of a cotal of $5,371,912; the imports were about $2,000,000."

The sole religion professed is the Roman Catholic, and 10 per cent of the Church revenue belonging to the State goes to the Pope as an annual offering. Education is in the hands of the clergy, with about 600 schools, one university, and several colleges.

Egypt.

Egypt, a dependency of Turkey, situated in northern Africa; area, 869,391 square miles; population in 1877, 17,402,627 (estimated), including Nubia and Soodan. Imports, 1877, $223,644,000; exports, $615,229,648; more than half the commerce is with Great Britain. The executive power, which is absolute, is in the hands of the Khedive, a prince tributary to the Sultan. The largest city is Cairo, 349,883 inhabitants. Revenue for 1879 was estimated at $49,683,000, and the ex penditures at $51,260,000. Public debt, $398,420,140. Army, 53,760 men; navy, 14 vessels. Railways in 1877, 1080 miles; telegraphs, 5,260 miles. Letters carried by post in 1877, 2648,000; jour nals, 728,949.

France.

The republic of France (204,147 square miles; population in 1876, 36,905,788) dates its present constitution and government from the 4th of September, 1870, when the Second Em pire, under Napoleon III., came to an end. The legislative power is vested in a Corps Legislatif, consisting of a Senate of 300 members, 225 of whom

are chosen for 9 years by the Departments and the colonies, and 75 for life by the National Assembly; and a Chamber of Deputies, now 532 members, elected by universal suffrage, one deputy to each 100,000 inhabitants. Salary of Senators and Deputies, $1,800. Every Frenchman of 21 years has the right to vote, and there were in 1876, 9,948,070 legal voters, a ratio of one voter to every four inhabitants nearly.

The executive power is vested in a President, elected for seven years by a joint assembly of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies; salary, $120,000, and $32,480 for household expenses; he has power to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies upon the advice of the Senate. The ministry, or Secretaries of State, consisting of nine members, are responsible to the Chambers for the political conduct of the government, while the President is responsible only in case of high treason.

Besides these officers there is a Council of State presided over by the Minister of Justice, whose function it is to advise on all subjects of law and administrative regulations_submitted to it, its decision being final on causes or complaints against officers of the Government.

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France is divided into 87 departments, which are subdivided into 362 "2865 "cantons, arrondissements," and about 36,000 communes." The President of the Republic appoints a prefect or administrative officer for each department, who is head of the police, issues local decrees, superintends tax collection, and, in a word, represents the government as general agent, assisted by a council elected by the people.

Public debt is divided into funded debt, which is not subject to reimbursement, but only to interest pay ment, and floating debt or deposits with the treasury, and bills of exchange called "bons du trésor." The funded debt, represented by 5 per cent Rentes, was $4,750,337,109, and the floating debt, $65,000,000.

Revenue for 1879, $545,000,000; expenditure, $552,800,000.

Imports in 1878 amounted to $892,195.000, and exports the same year to $673,961,400.

Miles of railway January 1, 1879, 15,265.

The large revenues are derived chiefly from excise and stamp taxes, only the insignificant sum of $54,000,000, or about 10 per cent of the whole revenue, coming from customs; the land tax or "contribution foncière" is assessed on the net revenue of lands and houses; the poll-tax, the door and window tax, and the license tax bring in large sums; the income tax is 3 per cent on income from public funds or any other dividends, besides which

the stamp taxes amount to 3 or 4 per cent on this class of property; the excise brings in the largest revenue of all, about $200,000,000 per annum, and is levied on spirits, tobacco, salt, sugar, paper, matches, coaches, railways, bridges, receipts, etc.

The army, consisting of about 440,000 men in time of peace, and 19,057 officers, costs about $100,000,000 per annum. Every Frenchman of 20 years owes to the country five years active service, with very slight exemptions.

The French navy has 110 vessels, 1758 officers and about 20,000 marines. The Roman Catholic Church is the most powerful in France, and the sums paid to the clergy of that faith by the government amount to about $8,000,000 a year.

Systematic provision is made for public instruction, every commune having to maintain primary schools, though education is neither gratuitous nor compulsory. In 1873, out of a population of 23,294,554 above 20 years, 7,702,362 could neither read nor write.

About half the French people are engaged in agriculture, and the multitude of small landed proprietors is greater proportionally than in any country except the United States: out of 18,513,325 rural population there were 9,000,000 land owners living on their lands, 4,570,000 farmers and tenants, and only 3,255,000 day laborers. The value of land under tillage varied from $105 to $323 per acre, and the rent of land from $3.64 to $12.14 per

acre.

Germany.

The empire of Germany (208,427 square miles; population, 1875, 42,727,360) succeeded in 1871, to the North German Confederation of 1866. It is a union of 25 sovereign states, consisting of 4 kingdoms, 6 grand duchies 5 duchies, 7 principalities, and 3 free towns. Alsace Lorraine, ceded by France at the close of the war of 187071, forms a 26th member of the confederation, but is governed by Imperial authority.

Germany is a constitutional monarchy, the Emperor exercising imperial power in the name of the 25 confederated states. The Bundesrath, or federal council, has 59 members appointed for each session by the governments of the several states. The Reichstag, or House of Representatives, has 397 members, elected for 3 years by universal suffrage-every German of 21 years being an elector. The sessions of the legislature are annual, and every law must receive a majority of the whole number of members of both Houses, and the sanction of the Emperor.

The revenue for fiscal year ending March 31, 1879, was $83,204,050, derived i one-third from customs, one-third

from excise on sugar, salt, tobacco, spirits, and malt, and the remaining third from various sources. The expenditure for ordinary purposes was $103,877,190, of which no less than $80,600,000 was for the army, and $30,000,000 extraordinary expenses. The deficiency in revenue to meet expenditure was made up by contributions of the states, $22,000,000, and loans $29,000,000. In 1879 heavy additions were made to the tariff on imported goods, and Germany has returned to an extreme protective system.

The public debt is only about $44,000,000 funded, and about $40,000,000 floating debt, represented by Treasury notes bearing no interest.

An exclusive gold currency was adopted by law of December 4, 1871.

The German army on a peace footing has been fixed at 401,659 men until December 31, 1881. Military service is compulsory upon every German capable of bearing arms.

The German navy consists of 70 vessels, 965 officers, and 9,265 men.

Public school education is compulsory in Germany; the number of primary schools is about 60,000, and of pupils 6,500,000. There are 360 gymnasia for preparatory training for the universities; of the latter there are 21, with 1,913 professors, and 20,826 students.

The population of Germany in 1875 embraced about 27,000,000 Protestants, 15,000,000 Roman Catholics, and 500,000 Jews.

The foreign commerce of Germany amounted in 1876 to $918,850,000 imports, $608,200,000 exports.

Germany had in 1878, 18,830 miles of railway, about 11,000 miles of which were worked by the government, and 7,689 miles only were private rail

ways.

In 1878 there were 33,660 miles of telegraph lines, sending 14 million messages. The postal and telgraphic departments are managed conjoinly by the government, and have increased greatly of late years, the number of letters carried in 1877 being 604 millions, against 352 millions in 1872.

Great Britain.

Great Britain, a kingdom embracing England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and the Channel Islands, area 84,392 square miles, population 1871, 21,628,338, has also immense landed possessions in all parts of the globe; its colonies in Asia, chiefly British India, embrace over 210,000,000 inhabitants,in America over 5,000,000, and in Australia 2,400,000. By the British constitution the supreme legislative power is in a Parliament which holds for 7 years unless sooner dissolved by royal proclamation. The House of Lords (538 members in 1879) consists of 5 peers of the Queen's family, 2 archbishops and