environment. However, doubts are cast on whether such benefits can be sufficient to overcome the added costs. 43 references, 8 tables.

1359

Cost-benefit analysis of local measured service. Crew, M.A. (Rutgers Univ., New Brunswick, NJ); Dansby, R.E. pp 35-61 of Regulatory reform and public utilities. Crew, M.A. (ed.). Lexington, MA; D.C. Heath and Company (1982).

Crew and Dansby examine the problem of implementing new rate structures for local telephone service. With the proposed divestiture of the local Bell operating companies (BOCs), the question of reform of local rate structures takes on new interest because of the options opened by divestiture. These include business almost as usual, with the long-distance traffic subsidizing the local service by an above-cost access charge, raising local rates as currently structured, or introducing local measured service. The latter, by charging for local usage instead of the flat rates generally in operation, provides both an incentive to the user to economize on use and a reduction of cost to the telephone company. In addition, consumers would benefit by reduced local-access charges. The authors discuss how the benefits and costs resulting from local-measured service can be reconciled by means of a cost-benefit analysis of local-measured service. Both mandatory and optional plans are examined and their effects compared. Such analyses may play an important role in demonstrating to regulators the effects of usage-sensitive pricing in the new era following divestiture. 17 references, 3 figures.

1360

Regulation and relative wages and earnings. Grawe, O.; Kafoglis, M. (Emory Univ., Atlanta, GA). pp 213-243 of Regulatory reform and public utilities. Crew, M.A. (ed.). Lexington, MA; D.C. Heath and Company (1982).

The interaction of regulation and unionization and its effects on wage rates is of interest to all public utilities. If regulators concentrate on regulating the rate-of-return on capital, but do not seriously question operating expenses, there may be an incentive for companies to allow wages to increase because of a reduced incentive for tough bargaining. The authors examine wage rates in both regulated and unregulated industries, and do not find strong support for higher wages in regulated industries. Their results have important policy implications: implications that do not make a strong case for extending the scope of regulation to include closer scrutiny by regulators of wage bargaining 12 references. 8 tables.

1361

Automatic-adjustment clauses and allocative efficiency in public utilities. Cowing, T.G. (State Univ. of New York, Binghamton); Stevenson, R.E. Journal of Economics and Business; 34: No. 4, 317-329(1982).

This paper presents a formal analysis of the efficiency effects of automatic-adjustment clauses (AACs) in regulated industries. Using a two-imput model of ex ante/ex post input choice and general putty-clay technology, the authors analyze the relative extent of allocative distortions due to each of three alternative regulatory policies (periodic rate review with and without an AAC, and an AAC without any rate review) for the case of a regulated firm that chooses an ex post technology to maximize the present value of future profits. Results indicate that the economic rationale for using AACS in industries already subject to intermittent rate review is not unambiguous, even in the face of severe cost inflation, and is particularly sensitive to the magnitude of the price elasticity of demand for output and the rate and direction of input price changes. It is concluded that the use of AACS in regulated industries such as electric power, while originally justified on the basis of financial viability, may well carry significant economic costs in the form of allocative inefficiency that may outweight the benefits. 49 references, 3 figures, 1 table.

areas sustain capital investment and having become linked to each other and to exurban areas so much that they are now the most ef ficient locational modes in the metropolitan structure. They indicate that over recent history, the business sector of the US has invested a great deal of capital in nonresidential facilities in centrifugal fashion around the central cities. Further, to declare this investment obsolete because of a future energy policy that would attempt to reinstate the central city as the dominant metropolitan mode would bankrupt the nation. 6 tables.

1363

Squeezing spread city: a second look. Downs, A. (Brookings Institution, Washington, DC). pp 145-150 of Energy and land use. Burchell, R.W.; Listokin, D. (eds.). Piscataway, NJ; Rutgers-the State University (1982).

Downs describes the forces that shaped the structure of US metropolitan areas over the previous 50 years. He makes the point that cheap energy, while a contributing factor to suburbanization, is only one of several forces, which include: the desire for lower-density living, to be spatially separated from the poor, and the growing obsolescence of the central city. He concludes that: (1) households will continue to decentralize as long as homeownership cost savings exceed increased costs of commuting; (2) travel patterns will change before settlement patterns change as fuel costs increase; (3) there will be increased demands on public transit, particularly softwheeled, highway-oriented forms; (4) select, older neighborhoods of central cities may experience some revival related to energy price, but this will not lead to any general, broad-based revival for energy considerations; and (5) a density increase is more likely to take place in the middle band of suburban locations than in the core

areas.

1364

Metropolitan form and increasing fuel prices. Kain, J.F. (Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA). pp 151-155 of Energy and land use. Burchell, R.W.; Listokin, D. (eds.). Piscataway, NJ; Rutgers-the State University (1982).

A survey of the available evidence about higher energy prices indicates that there is considerable uncertainty about what the future world price of petroleum is likely to be. Kain finds it less likely that there will be major changes in urban areas than that we will follow the European model with greater energy efficiency in home-heating systems and automobiles. Modest decreases in the size of residential and nonresidential structures will more than compensate for any potential energy increases, while new-car designs and the dropping real cost of gasoline will compensate for price increases. In the long-run, however, higher incomes will enable Americans to buy more of everything.

1365

Higher energy prices: windfall gains for homeowners?. Penz, A.J. (Carnegie-Mellon Univ, Arlington, Va, USA). Energy (Oxford); 6: No. 12, 1467-1480(Dec 1981).

The rapid rise of energy fuel prices in recent years has stimulated household interest in the cost of heating, cooling, and lighting houses. The obvious response implied by government policy and some government programs emphasizes an evaluation of houses, at least partially, on the basis of the reported fuel bills. The more fundamental issue, however, is establishing the potential for reducing energy consumption by improving home energy efficiency. The distribution of this potential throughout the housing stock implies that homeowners should gain or lose house value according to market perception of the retrofit potential rather than fuel bills per se. Houses which require few expenditures per unit of energy saved annually should increase in value at the expense of houses which require major expenditures. The ability to improve housing in response to higher energy prices probably correlates weakly but negatively with household income; lower income households could gain the most per dollar invested in home energy improvements. The hypotheses presented in this paper identify a number of issues that require empirical validation yet challenge conventional views on the basis of currently available data.

Analyzing alternative solutions to technical problems and weighing the consequences has an increasingly fashionable name: technology assessment. When the problem concerns a subject as multifaceted as energy, in which technology, economics, resource allocations, and social goals all interact, it becomes extremely difficult to balance costs and benefits and reach a social consensus. A comprehensive approach to ETA is suggested to comprise the following elements: (1) a taxonomy of technical, economical an environmental options within a hierarchically organized mobile; (2) applying multi-criteria decision analysis on each level of the mobile; and (3) a GPS-like program that amounts to a balancing procedure, a trade-off, or an on-line benefit-cost analysis along the mobile path, from the bottom up. A first tentative approximation of the analysis in the issue of energy provisions by nuclear power plants is presented.

1367 Surviving the energy crunch: organizing for jobs, heat and power. Thompson, E. Washington, DC; Environmental Action Foundation ([nd]). 15p. Environmental Action Foundation, 724 Depont Circle Building, Washington, DC 20036 $2.50.

Since the poor and moderate-income families suffer more as a result of rising energy prices, this booklet examines the relationship between energy and community concerns such as jobs, community development, and utility rates in order to find ways to aid these families. Examples of organizing efforts and regional compaigns show how local community-based organizations have responded creatively and positively to the energy problem. Following the text is a list of publications, community organizations, and organizer training schools which are concerned with energy problems facing low-income communities.

2903 Environment, Health, And Safety

REFER ALSO TO CITATION(S) 1282, 1474, 1676, 1736, 1749, 1752, 1823, 1841, 1842, 1888

1368

(ANL/EES-TM-200) Bubble policy: a preliminary analysis for the state of Illinois. Garvey, D.B.; Grogan, P.J.; Hanson, D.A.; Streets, D.G.; Carter, L.D. (Argonne National Lab., IL (USA)). May 1982. Contract W-31-109ENG-38. 31p. NTIS, PC A03/MF A01. Order Number DE83002678.

The bubble policy is an air-pollution management strategy by which emissions from a group of sources are regulated together. Two potential changes in the US Environmental Protection Agency's bubble policy have been evaluated: allowing statewide bubbling of SO2 sources and allowing sources regulated under the new source performance standards to be bubbled with sources regulated under state implementation plans for attaining the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Illinois was selected as a test state because of the wide range of emission limits applicable to utilities in that state. This preliminary analysis indicates that implementation of these two changes could save Illinois utilities about half what they now spend to reduce SO2 emissions under current regulations, without any increase in SO2 emissions. The savings would amount to about $300 million per year. The use of low-sulfur coal would increase, causing some adverse impacts on the local high-sulfur coal-mining industry; however, an auxiliary analysis indicates that the use of local medium-sulfur coal could alleviate these adverse impacts on Illinois miners and reduce the cost of emission control even further, with no increase in emissions.

1369

(ANL/EES-TM-204) Effects of energy development on ground water quality: an overview and preliminary assessment. Parker, W.M. III; Yin, S.C.L.; Davis, M.J.; Kutz, W.J. (Argonne National Lab., IL (USA)). Jul 1981. Contract W-31-109-ENG-38. 46p. NTIS, PC A03/MF A01; 1. Order Number DE83005639.

Portions are illegible in microfiche products. Original copy available until stock is exhausted.

A preliminary national overview of the various effects on ground water quality likely to result from energy development. Based on estimates of present and projected energy-development activities, those regions of the country are identified where ground water quality has the potential for being adversely affected. The

general causes of change in ground water quality are reviewed. Specific effects on ground water quality of selected energy technologies are discussed, and some case-history material is provided. A brief overview of pertinent legislation relating to the protection and management of ground water quality is presented. Six methodologies that have some value for assessing the potential effects on ground water quality of energy development activities are reviewed. A method of identifying regions in the 48 contiguous states where there is a potential for ground water quality problems is described and then applied.

1370

(ANL/EES-TM-205) Implications of emerging environmental-control technologies for air-pollution regulations. Livengood, C.D.; Doctor, R.D.; Farber, P.S.; Hubble, B.R.; Lecky, J.A.; Streets, D.G.; Huang, H.S. (Argonne National Lab., IL (USA)). Nov 1982. Contract W-31-109ENG-38. 62p. NTIS, PC A04/MF A01. Order Number DE83005901.

Control technologies applicable to coal-fired energy systems are reviewed. Where possible, any potential for improved emissions control or more-economical control or both is noted to identify areas that may give rise to future ECT issues. The discussion is limited to technologies for control of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO/sub x/), and particulate matter. Also, the scope of the report has been limited in several areas to what are, in our judgment, the more promising technologies.

1371

(CONF-8203103-, pp 5p, Paper 14) Bubbles, existing and new under the Clean Air Act. Bromberg, J.P. 1982. NTIS, PC A09/MF A01. Order Number DE83004459.

From 4. annual symposium on industrial coal utilization; Cincinnati, OH, USA (31 Mar 1982).

The recognition that the total quantity of pollutants emitted by a source was more important than the emissions of the separate units gave rise to the adoption of the bubble policy wherein internal plant tradeoffs between units were allowed such that a total emission limit applied to an entire plant. This policy was first applied to existing sources, and later extended to PSD and nonattainment determinations. In this presentation we examine the potential environmental and cost benefits of expanding the present bubble policy to new sources.

1372

(DOE/EIS-0083-F) Final Northeast Regional Environmental Impact Statement: potential conversion of fortytwo powerplants from oil to coal or alternate fuels. (USDOE Economic Regulatory Administration, Washington, DC. Office of Fuels Programs). Oct 1982. 420p. NTIS (US Sales Only). Order Number DE83003847.

Mf only; illegibility does not permit PC reproduction. Printed copy available until stock is exhausted.

This final environmental impact statement (FEIS) assesses the potential for cumulative and interactive impacts resulting from the conversion of 42 powerplants in the Northeastern United States from oil to coal and from a more likely Voluntary Conversion scenario of 27 powerplants. The FEIS is designed to provide decisionmakers with information on the types and magnitude of environmental impacts associated with a range of conversion scenarios within the coal alternative. These scenarios are defined in terms of the air pollution emission limitations that could be imposed on a particular facility by a state or federal agency as a condition for conversion to coal. The substantive areas of environmental impact that are analyzed are: air quality, water quality, land use, biotic resources, socioeconomics, and health effects. In addition to coal burning, the potential environmental impacts associated with conservation, and with the solar, wind, hydroelectric, coal-fired cogeneration, wood, and geothermal alternatives are assessed. This document together with the draft environmental impact statement (DEIS) constitute USDOE's Final Northeast Regional Environmental Impact Statement.

Portions of document are illegible. Printed copy available until stock is exhausted.

The feasibility of a flare system for the rapid and safe incineration of the cargo of a disabled LNG tanker is evaluated. The project developed design parameters and proof-of-principle investigations of a system for off-loading and flaring LNG from a disabled LNG tanker. The system described offers enough promise to warrant additional investigation, if cargo burning is desired as a way of reducing other possible hazards.

1374

(NP-3901079) Acid rain: a background report. Glustrom, L.; Stolzenberg, J. (Wisconsin Legislative Council Staff, Madison (USA)). 8 Jul 1982. 72p. NTIS, PC A04/ MF A01. Order Number DE83901079.

Portions of document are illegible.

This Staff Brief was prepared for the Wisconsin Legislative Council's Special Committee on Acid Rain to provide an introduction to the issue of acid rain. It is divided into four parts. Part I provides an overview on the controversies surrounding the measurement, formation and effects of acid rain. As described in Part I, the term acid rain is used to describe the deposition of acidic components through both wet deposition (e.g., rain or snow) and dry deposition (e.g., direct contact between atmospheric constituents and the land, water or vegetation of the earth). Part II presents background information on state agency activities relating to acid rain in Wisconsin, describes what is known about the occurrence of, susceptibility to and effects of acid rain in Wisconsin, and provides information related to man-made sources of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in Wisconsin. Part III describes major policies and regulations relating to acid rain which have been or are being developed jointly by the United States and Canadian governments, by the United States government and by the State of Wisconsin. Part IV briefly discusses possible areas for Committee action.

Number DE83004010.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission has proposed a onethousand-dollar per man-rem averted ALARA criterion. This report examines the relationship between population dose and health effects, as well as onsite and offsite damage. Examination of the consequences of potential accidents at two sites shows that a site with lower population dose can have equal or greater consequences in terms of health effects and property damage. Using predicted consequences of potential accidents at 156 reactor-site combinations, the dependence of population dose and consequences is examined and its implications discussed.

1376

(PB-83-112177) Cost analysis of proposed changes to the air quality modeling guidelines. Wojcik, M.; Wojcik, J.; Bareford, P.; Havelock, M.; Geraghty, M. (GCA Corp., Bedford, MA (USA). GCA Technology Div.). Feb 1982. 299p. NTIS, PC A13/MF A01.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a set of guidelines to be followed in any air quality modeling study performed for the EPA. The Guideline on Air Quality Models (AQMG) was issued in 1978 as a part of the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards Guideline Series. Since the release of the 1978 AQMG, the EPA has had a chance to review its effectiveness and gather together recommendations on how the document could be improved. In 1980, a proposed revision to the 1978 AQMG was issued for review. In this report, GCA examines the costs associated with implementing certain features of the 1980 proposed revision.

conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication facilities is given. Sites visits were the primary source of information, which is divided into four sections. The first section discusses health physics practices that are common to the conversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication phases of the commercial uranium industry. The next three sections review process descriptions, radiological health practices, and regulatory procedures for the three phases. Nonradiological exposures are considered only as they influence the interpretation of the health effects of radiological exposures. The review of regulatory procedures indicates the types of exposure evaluation records being kept on uranium workers and the responsibility for maintaining the records.

1378

(SAND-82-1221) Approach to ES and H Assurance Programs for institutions. Volume 1. Institutional and ES and H staff functions. Ellingson, A.C.; Trauth, C.A. Jr. (eds.). (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM (USA)). Sep 1982. Contract AC04-76DP00789. 278p. NTIS, PC A13/MF A01. Order Number DE83004254.

The approach taken toward the development of environmental, safety, and health (ES and H) management systems that provide assurance of performance has involved four overlapping phases: planning, testing, implementation studies, and information dissemination. In order to promote better understanding of ES and H Assurance Program concepts as a part of the final information dissemination phase of the development program, 13 of the 15 guidance documents used in successful implementation tests of ES and H Assurance management concepts and a discussion of the ES and H Assurance Program Standard have been combined in two volumes. This is the first of this 2-volume set. Chapter titles include: introduction; a discussion of the ES and H Assurance Program Standard; characteristics of ES and H Assurance Programs; a model plan for institutional ES and H Assurance Programs; a model plan for ES and H staff review activities; a model plan for ES and H staff audits and appraisals; a model plan for institutional emergency response programs; and a model plan for institutional accident investigations. Nine appendixes are included. (JGB)

1379

(SAND—82-1222) Approach to E, S, and H assurance programs for institutions. Volume II. Line-organization functions. Ellingson, A.C.; Trauth, C.A. Jr. (eds.). (Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM (USA)). Sep 1982. Contract AC04-76DP00789. 262p. NTIS, PC A12/MF A01. Order Number DE83004478.

Portions of document are illegible. Printed copy available until stock is exhausted.

Environmental, Safety and Health (ES and H) Programs, and possible approaches to their implementation, are described in 17 separate Sandia National Laboratories publications. This is the second of two volumes in which much of this material is collected and condensed in order to facilitate its use. This volume offers quidance for the implementation of ES and H Assurance Programs at the working level of line organizations within institutions.

1380

to (TENRAC/EDF-057-Vol.1) Plan evaluate acid-deposition issues in the state of Texas. Final report. Levy, J.A. Jr. (Espey, Huston and Associates, Inc., Austin, TX (USA)). 15 Jan 1982. 90p. NTIS, PC A05/MF A01. Order Number DE83900818.

Portions of document are illegible.

The development of a coherent, organized plan to investigate acid deposition in Texas is proposed. A preliminary evaluation of the acid deposition problem nationwide and its relevance to the State of Texas has been completed. Monitoring continues in the eastern portion of the state where potential exists for future problems. There is a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources of airborne material important to the process of acid deposition in Texas. In general, these sources are different in character than those found in other, more thoroughly investigated, areas of the country. Two of the primary acid deposition precursors are emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO/sub x/) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). No single source category has been found to be a predominant SO2 or NO/sub x/ producer. Impacts on Texas from anthropogenic sources in adjacent states and Mexico are possible but are undetermined at this time. Natural sources of airborne material can, possibly, be important in determining local and regional impacts. These natural sources in

The information presented in this report is drawn from an extensive review of the existing literature concerning the various aspects of acid deposition. Additionally, key researchers involved in the study of acid deposition were interviewed to obtain the most current data available and to resolve, if possible, questions generated by the literature review. These data were placed into perspective, with respect to Texas, by a multidisciplinary team of experts having extensive experience in the state. The available body of knowledge suggests that acid deposition is not a problem of immediate concern throughout most of Texas. The potential for a problem in the future may exist, however, in parts of east Texas where acid precipitation has been monitored and where the most sensitivity to potential acid deposition effects are found.

1382 Summary of the federal Emissions Trading Policy statement. Ellis, H.M.; Greenway, A.R.; Duplak, E. (Enviroplan, Inc.). Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association; 32: No. 8, 808-809(Aug 1982).

On April 7, 1982, EPA published its proposed Emissions Trading Policy Statement which encourages states to use emission trades to achieve more flexible and rapid attainment of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) at less cost than would otherwise be possible. A summary of the Emissions Trading Policy (ETP) is presented and discussed in nine parts: air pollutants covered under ETP; sources that can use ETP; way in which sources can use the ETP; definition of emission reduction credit; definition of baseline emissions; use of emission reduction credits in bubbles, netting, and offsets; ambient tests; banking of emission reduction credits; state generic trading rules.

1383

Quantitative comparisons of genotoxic effects of atomic energy and fossil-fuelled energy. Rad-equivalences for ethylene, ethylene oxide and formaldehyde - consequences for decisions at Government level. Latarjet, R.; Averbeck, D.; Levy, S.; Poirier, V. (Section de Biologie, Institut Curie, Paris, France). pp 387-397 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982).

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981).

41 refs.

Rad-equivalences have been determined on the basis of data on the genotoxic effects of low linear energy transfer ionizing radiation and of three chemical pollutants ethylene, ethylene oxide and formaldehyde- emitted from energy-producing power plants. In the case of ethylene and its metabolite, ethylene oxide, the conditions were particularly favourable because the equivalences could be based on the induction of total mutations in the mouse, which is the same genetic end-point used for the assessment of radiation risks. Once established, the rad-equivalences were used (a) to extrapolate the rules adopted for radiation to each of these two compounds and (b) to make recommendations for exposed workers at 'hot spots' and for the general population. Measurements of ethylene in power plants and in the atmosphere of Paris have indicated that in most cases the measured values fall within the recommended values. However, pollution by ethylene oxide in cold sterilization units should be reduced. Rad-equivalences obtained for lethal effects, and for the induction of chromosome aberrations by formaldehyde in human cells in vitro, suggest that the maximum admissible concentrations are far too high in most countries and must be reconsidered. In France, the Ministry of Health is taking the radequivalences into consideration for the preparation of a law regulating pollution by ethylene and ethylene oxide - as a first step. These results show that rad-equivalences can be used for risk assessments

of genotoxic effects from power plants and that decisions can be made by extrapolating the rules adopted for radiation protection to some chemical mutagens, when certain strict conditions are fulfilled.

1384

Comparative risk assessment of total energy systems. Soerensen, B. (Roskilde University Centre, Institute 2, Denmark). pp 455-471 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982).

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981). 31 refs.

The paper discusses a methodology for total impact assessment of energy systems, ideally evaluating all the impacts that a given energy system has on the society in which it is imbedded or into which its introduction is being considered. Impacts from the entire energy conversion chain ('fuel cycle' if the system is fuelbased), including energy storage, transport and transmission, as well as the institutions formed in order to manage the system, should be compared on the basis of the energy service provided. A number of impacts are considered, broadly classified as impacts on satisfaction of biological needs, on health, on environment, on social relations and on the structure of society. Further considerations include impacts related to cost and resilience, and, last but not least, impacts on global relations. The paper discusses a number of published energy studies in the light of the comparative impact assessment methodology outlined above.

1385

Quantification of the health hazards associated with different energy sources. Reissland, J.A.; Kendall, G.M.; Greenhalgh, J.R. (National Radiological Protection Board, Chilton, United Kingdom). pp 473-485 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982).

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981).

Comparisons of health hazards which may result from the operation of different types of electrical power-producing systems are a necessary input to the decision-making process of planning future supplies. Although other factors have played a dominant role in the past and will continue to be a major influence, much greater attention is now devoted to a consideration of detriment to health associated with large-scale industrial development. The paper considers only this health aspect of the comparison and concentrates on one aspect of that, namely on how the impact on health of workers and public can be expressed to represent the detriment. Two measures are discussed: the number of deaths and the effective loss of life, both evaluated per GW(e).a. The latter is extended along the same lines as in the ICRP publication 'Problems Involved in Developing an Index of Harm'. The index of harm is a measure of hazard to a worker in a particular industry; the analogous quantity here is a measure of hazard of operating a 1-GW(e) power plant. For illustration, the hazards of coal-fired and nuclear power stations are compared although certain factors are omitted from both cycles which it will be essential to include if the method is extended to bring wind, wave and solar energy sources into the comparison. Inevitably some contributions are very difficult to quantify and it may be more realistic to consider these qualitatively rather than attempt to fold them in with artificial numerical values. The procedure described for the inclusion of quantifiable factors seems to be a reasonable basis for comparison but it is not suggested that any such procedure is adequate by itself. Clearly comparisons should be made on several distinct bases.

1386

Direct and indirect health and safety impacts of electrical generation options. Habegger, L.J.; Gasper, J.R.; Brown, C.D. (Argonne National Lab., IL (USA)). pp 487497 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982).

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981).

This report is an analysis of the health and safety risks of seven electrical generation systems, all of which have the potential for commercial availability after the year 2000. The systems are compared on the basis of expected public and occupational deaths and lost workdays associated with average unit generation of 1000 MW(e) per year. The risks and associated uncertainties are estimated for all phases of the energy production cycle, including fuel extraction and processing, on-site construction and system operation and maintenance. Also included are the risks of direct and indirect component manufacture, materials production and energy inputs, all of which are major contributors to the risks of the more capitalintensive solar technologies. The potential significance of major health and safety issues that remain largely unquantifiable are also considered.

1387 Comparison of health impact of different methods of electricity generation in France. Fagnani, F.; Maccia, C.; Hubert, P. (Centre d'Etude sur l'Evaluation de la Protection dans le Domaine Nucleaire, 92 - Fontenay-aux-Roses (France)). pp 557-566 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982). (In French)

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981).

The authors present the principal results of a study carried out in France to compare risks associated with the operation of facilities based on the three main methods of electricity generation in current use the coal, oil and nuclear (PWR) cycles. The comparison was made following a detailed analysis of the fuel cycles utilized in each method. Consistency in the assumptions made in defining the fuel cycles was ensured by using scenarios which take into account forecasts of electricity supply and demand in France up to 1990 (300 TW.h net). Three categories of impact are described: (1) occupational hazards (accidents at work, occupational diseases, theoretical radiological risks); (2) risks to the public evaluated on the basis of estimated data for recurring and accidental wastes and pathways to the environment; and (3) risks to the environment evaluated in terms of the amount of contaminant released.

1388

Comparative assessment of the health impacts of coal-fired, peat-fired and nuclear power plants. Lautkaski, R.; Pohjola, V.; Savolainen, I.; Vuori, S. (Valtion Teknillinen Tutkimuskeskus, Espoo (Finland)). pp 569-579 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982).

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981).

New large condensing power plants must be built in Finland to satisfy the increasing demand for electric power. Possible choices are coal- or peat-fired power plants and nuclear power plants. A study of the health impacts of alternative plants has been made. The total fuel cycle from extraction to waste disposal has been considered, although some phases of fuel cycles of coal and nuclear power are performed in the fuel-supplier countries. Health impacts on the general public from atmospheric emissions of contaminants are assessed for one typical plant site. Risks associated with accidents in fuel transport are assessed on the basis of the present transport situation. A research project in which stack emissions of oil-, coal- and peat-fired power plants are analysed is under way.

1389

Assessing systemwide occupational health and safety risks of energy technologies. Rowe, M.D. (Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, NY (USA). National Center for Analysis of Energy Systems). pp 639-652 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982).

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981).

Input-output modelling is now being used to assess systemwide occupational and public health and safety risks of energy technologies. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of this method are presented and some of its important limitations are discussed. Its primary advantage is that it provides a standard method with which to compare technologies on a consistent basis without extensive economic analysis. Among the disadvantages are limited range of applicability, limited spectrum of health impacts, and inability to identify unusual health impacts unique to a new technology.

1390

Occupational risk induced by construction of energy-production chains. Methodology and evaluation in France. Hubert, P. (Centre d'Etude sur l'Evaluation de la Protection dans le Domaine Nucleaire, 92 - Fontenay-auxRoses (France)). pp 655-663 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982).

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981).

The Centre d'etude sur l'evaluation de la protection dans le domaine nucleaire has been conducting studies for several years on the comparison of health and social effects in various electricity production chains. Attention should be paid to a particular area in risk evaluation: the calculation of effects during the construction stage. The method used, the Leontieff macro-economic analysis, should be examined in detail, for it is a powerful tool whose uses go well beyond risk calculation. Moreover, it is at this stage that the richness and ambiguities of occupational risk measurement appear most clearly. As this is a major factor in the evaluation of risks generated by techniques of electricity production, it is important to show how it is calculated and, especially, how comparative evaluations have been interpreted. Three conventional production technologies are examined (PWR, oil and coal) and two solarpowered (a thermal system extrapolated from the Themis plant built in France and a photovoltaic process). The production scenarios are adapted to the French context, with the location of the installations and the origin of the fuel clearly spelled out. The results of this evaluation are striking: with the exception of coal, which is a labour-intensive industry, a very large portion of occupational risk can be traced to the construction phase (from 67% for the PWR system to 97% for the photovoltaic process). Even in total health risk (occupational and public), construction accounts for a preponderant share. In fact, this risk should be compared to average occupational risk in the economy at large, i.e. that to which workers in electricity production chains would be exposed if they worked elsewhere. This is the meaning of the 'reference level' pointed out in the study.

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Health implications of energy production. Komarov, E. (World Health Organization, Geneva (Switzerland)). pp 675-682 of Health impacts of different sources of energy. Proceedings of an international symposium jointly organized by the WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the IAEA and held in Nashville, U.S.A., 22-26 June 1981. Vienna, Austria; International Atomic Energy Agency (1982).

From International symposium on health impacts of different sources of energy; Nashville, TN, USA (22 Jun 1981).

Recent WHO activities concerning the impact on environmental health of all forms of energy production are reported. The concept of 'health detriment' is defined. Risk estimates from the nu