REFERENCES

1. Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (New York: Free Press, 1967), p. 96. Originally published in 1925. 2. Nathan Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 189.

3. This definition is adopted from the definition of "Development" given in Congressional Research Service, Science Policy, A Working Glossary, prepared for the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development, U. S. House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics, 93rd Congress, 1st Session (July 1973), p. 11.

4. Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box, p. 189.

5. James E. Webb, Space Age Management: The Large-Scale Approach, McKinsey Foundation Lecture Series, Graduate School of Business, Columbia University (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), pp. 60-65.

6. Ibid., p. 62.

7. Ibid., p. 143.

8. Charles E. Lindblom and David K. Cohen, Usable Knowledge: Social Science and Social Problem Solving (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), p. 86.

9. Tom Alexander, "The Right Remedy for R&D Lag," in Fortune (January 25, 1982), p. 61.

10. Richard L. Chapman, et al., Project Management in NASA (Washington, DC: NASA SP-324, 1973), p. 4.

11. Tom Alexander, "The Right Remedy for R&D Lag,” p. 66. 12. William P. Dunk and Courtenay W. Beinhorn, "Making R&D Dollars Work Harder," in High Technology, vol. 4, no. 4 (April 1984), p. 67.

13. George Sarton, A History of Science (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964), pp. 492-493.

14. J.H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance (New York: Mentor, 1963), p. 51 and Marie Boas, The Scientific Renaissance, 1450-1630 (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), pp. 36-37.

15. Ibid., p. 50.

16. A.R. Hall, The Scientific Revolution, 1500-1800, 2nd ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962), p. 189.

17. R.K. Merton, Science, Technology and Society in SeventeenthCentury England (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), pp. 239-261. 18. Ibid., p. XX.

19. Hall, The Scientific Revolution, p. 198.

20. See John Noble Wilford, The Mapmakers (New York: Knopf, 1981), Chapter 9 (Harrison) and Chapter 10 (Cook).

21. Arnold Levine, "The Structure of Scientific and Technical Education in Britain, 1859-1899," in Yearbook of the Nederlandsch Economisch-Historisch Archief (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1975), pp.

308-313.

22. Joseph Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971).

23. A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities to 1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957), p. 126.

24. Ibid., p. 170.

25. Don K. Price, The Scientific Estate (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965), p. 92.

26. Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists (New York: Vintage Books. 1979), p. 189.

27. Alex Roland, Research By Committee: A History of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1915-1958 (in process), p. 417.

28. J.L. Penick, et al., The Politics of American Science, 1939 to the Present, revised ed. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1972), pp. 5-6. 29. Kevles, The Physicists, p. 296.

30. Clarence H. Danhof, Government Contracting and Technological Change (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1968), p. 31. 31. Daniel S. Greenberg, The Politics of Pure Science (New York: New American Library, 1967), p. 80.

32. Kevles, The Physicists, p. 328.

33. Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr., The New World, 1939/1946, vol. I of A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962), p. 14.

34. Ibid., pp. 23, 27-28.

35. Ibid., p. 112.

36. Ibid., pp. 33-34.

37. Kevles, The Physicists, p. 329.

38. Richard R. Nelson, The Moon and the Ghetto (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1977), p. 119.

39. Reprinted in Seymour Melman, Pentagon Capitalism (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970), pp. 231-234.

40. Danhof, Government Contracting and Technological Change, p. 51.

41. Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966), p. 302.

42. Harold Orlans, Contracting for Atoms (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1967), p. 44.

43. Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan, Nuclear Navy, 1946-1962 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1974), p. 98.

44. Harvey Sapolsky, The Polaris System Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972), p. 78, n. 32.

45. Robert L. Perry, "The Atlas, Thor, Titan, and Minuteman," in Eugene M. Emme, ed., The History of Rocket Technology: Essays on Research, Development, and Utility (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1964), p. 149.

46. Sapolsky, The Polaris System Development, pp. 90-91.

47. The remainder of this section is based on Arnold S. Levine, "The Management of Large-Scale Technology," read at conference at Yale University, February 6, 1981.

48. See National Science Foundation. National Patterns of R&D Resources: Funds and Manpower in the United States, 1953-1976, (Washington, DC: NSF 76-310, 1976).

49. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1984 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983) p. 594.

50. Orlans, Contracting for Atoms, pp. 106-107.

51. Kevles, The Physicists, p. 415.

52. Hans Mark, "Technology and the Strategic Balance," lecture delivered before the students and faculty of the Naval War College, Newport, R. I. (May 6, 1981), pp. 24, 27.

53. Ibid.

54. Jim Fawcette, "Pentagon Push for Software Development Tools," High Technology, vol. 3, no. 10 (October 1983), pp. 78-79. 55. Samuel Florman, "Technology's Minor Moments," in Harper's, vol. 256 (June 1978), p. 16-19.

56. Orr Kelly, "While Protesters March, Bomb Business Flourishes," in U.S. News & World Report, vol. 94 (March 21, 1983), pp. 27-28.

57. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Science, Research and Development, Utilization of Federal Laboratories, 90th Congress, 2nd Session (March 26-28, April 2-4, 1968), p. 150.

58. Robert D. Behn, "Closing a Government Facility," in Public Administration Review, vol. 38, no. 4 (July/August 1978), p. 333. 59. W. Henry Lambright, Governing Science and Technology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 176.

60. Ibid., p. 177.

61. Ibid., p. 179.

62. U.S. News & World Report, "While Protesters March," p. 27. 63. See, for example, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Manual (March

15, 1967), Chapter 0701, "Appraisal of AEC and AEC Contractor Performance."

64. Defense Science Board Task Force, "Department of Defense In-House Laboratories" (Washington, DC: Office of the Director of Defense Research and Engineering, October 31, 1966), p. 8.

65. Ibid., p. 9.

66. House Committee on Science and Astronautics, Utilization of Federal Laboratories, p. 154.

67. This account is based on a NASA-Ames Research Center paper, "Helicopter Program Consolidation" (October 17, 1975).

68. Arnold Levine, Managing NASA in the Apollo Era (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4102, 1982), p. 135.

69. N. Brun and E. Ritchie, Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1975 (Washington, DC: SP-4020, 1979), p. 50.

70. Chapman, et al., Project Management in NASA, p. 105. 71. Donald D. Baals and William R. Corliss, Wind Tunnels of NASA (Washington, DC: SP-440, 1981), p. 136.

72. Herbert Kaufman, Are Government Organizations Immortal? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1976), p. 68. 73. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Productivity in Aerospace Research and Development (Washington, DC: NASA Technical Memorandum 82388, 1980), p. 2.

74. Chapman et al., Project Management in NASA, p. 60.

75. Donald Schon, "The Fear of Innovation," in David Allison, ed., The R&D Game (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969), p. 131. 76. John Greenwood, "The Air Force Ballistic Missile and Space Program," Aerospace Historian (December 1974), p. 195. 77. Exxon Corp., Public Affairs Dept., "Improved Oil Recovery,” (New York: Exxon Corp., December 1982), p. 14.

78. Schon, "The Fear of Innovation," p. 127.

79. John Jewkes, David Sawers, Richard Stillerman, The Sources of Invention, 2nd ed. (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1969), p. 228.

80. Ibid., p. 210.

81. Ibid., pp. 262-266.

82. Frank W. Anderson, Jr., Orders of Magnitude: A History of NACA and NASA, 1915-1980, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4403, 1981), p. 31.

83. Baals and Corliss, Wind Tunnels of NASA, pp. 62-63.

84. Ibid., pp. 113, 115.

85. Charles Moritz, ed., Current Biography, 1965 (New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1965), pp. 82-84.

86. "NASA's Management of Its Research and Technology: A Study of the Process" (January 1977), p. 3. The study committee, a mixed body of Headquarters and center representatives, was chaired by Bruce Lundin, director of the Lewis Research Center.

87. Levine, Managing NASA in the Apollo Era, especially Chapters 3 and 6.

88. On the tension between project work and basic research, see "NASA's Aeronautics Research and Technology Base," a report of the Ad Hoc Aeronautics Assessment Committee, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, National Research Council (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1979), pp. 5-7. 89. Chapman, et al., Project Management in NASA, p. 38.

90. "NASA's Management of Its Research and Technology," pp.

11-12.

91. Ibid., p. 21.

92. Ibid., pp. 22-23.

93. Ibid., p. 27.

94. Leonard R. Sayles and Margaret K. Chandler, Managing Large Systems: Organizations for the Future (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), p. 178.

95. Nick A. Komons, Science and the Air Force: A History of the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (Arlington, Va.: Office of Aerospace Research, 1966), p. 68.

96. Ibid., pp. 69-70.

97. Lambright, Governing Science and Technology, Chapter 4. 98. Chapman, et al., Project Management in NASA, pp. 52-53. 99. "NASA's Aeronautics Research and Technology Base," p. 6. 100. Bruno W. Augenstein, "Policy Analysis in the National Space Program" (July 1969), p. 60. Prepared at the request of the Subcommittee on Economy of the Joint Economic Committee, U.S. Congress.

101. Nelson, The Moon and the Ghetto, p. 117.

102. Jewkes, et al., The Sources of Invention, Parts II and III.

103. Ibid., p. 289.

104. Alan E. Puckett, "Independent Research and Development: Drive to Innovate, Aerospace, vol. 21, no. 2 (Spring 1983), p. 13. 105. Science Policy Research Division, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, Science Policy: A Working Glossary (Washington, DC: USGPO, July 1973), p. 67. Prepared for the House Committee on Science and Astronautics.

106. Richard R. Nelson, Merton J. Peck, Edward D. Kalachek, Technology, Economic Growth and Public Policy, (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1967), pp. 184-187.

107. Levine, Managing NASA in the Apollo Era, p. 288.