and perhaps uninformed electorate. Many existing districts would have made little progress if their affairs had been subject to popular control. Some undoubtedly owe even their establishment to the absence of a referendum.

The methods available generally for financing the work of water districts are the same as those used by municipalities. A rational and equitable plan is important in both cases. The scheme applicable to a particular situation depends naturally on the make-up of the district, existing local methods of financing, and the nature of the project. More latitude is usually possible where there are no existing water systems, or where all existing distribution systems are to be acquired, than in a district organized to supply distribution systems that are to remain under local ownership. In any event, it will be necessary generally to issue bonds in order to have funds for construction work available at all times. It is well to meet fixed charges by a combination of taxes and assessments, and maintenance and operating expenses by rates for service. District authorities should possess power to issue their own bonds, determine the amount to be raised each year by tax levy, and fix and collect their own assessments and charges for service.

Enabling acts for water districts should contain provisions facilitating the annexation of additional area without the necessity for further legislation, in order that conditions similar to those causing formation of the original district may be taken care of without delay whenever they become established in adjacent territory.

Recognition of the practicability and efficacy of coöperation in the solution of many problems of water supply and distribution is fast gaining ground. The facts that most existing water districts have been established at comparatively recent dates, and that many other joint projects have been under consideration, bear witness to this statement.

CHAPTER XXIV

OPERATING PRACTICE

Practice varies widely in operating activity, doubtless due in some cases to a difference in the size of the cities and in other cases to a difference in climatic or social conditions. In order to ascertain the variations in practice, 54 representative water works were asked to explain how they handled these problems. What follows is a summary of their reports.1

Preventing waste by free consumers

Inquiry among the 54 representative water works showed that 34 works furnished no free water or free water only for fire protection, street sprinkling and sewer flushing. In some of these cases the rates are very low for some city departments, and metering and frequent inspection are generally considered necessary to prevent serious waste.

In some states water companies are forbidden by the public utility commissions to furnish free water. Opposition to free water is reported to be increasing as the public learns that, speaking literally, there is no such thing as free water, because the cost of water furnished without charge to any public or private consumer must be paid for by somebody else. Where water is furnished free, the rate structure is likely to be unbalanced.

1In the preparation of this Chapter replies were received from the following cities: Altoona, Pa.; Ashland, Ky.; Atlanta, Ga.; Bangor, Me.; Brantford, Ont.; Buffalo, N. Y. (suburbs); Burlington, Ia.; Cairo, Ill.; Canton, O.; Champaign, Ill.; Charleston, S. C.; Charleston, W. Va.; Chattanooga, Tenn.; Clarksburg, W. Va.; Coeur d'Alene, Idaho; Covington, Ky.; Danville, Ill.; Davenport, Ia.; Des Moines, Ia.; Detroit, Mich.; Duluth, Minn.; Edmonton, Alba.; Flint, Mich.; Greenville, S. C.; Holyoke, Mass.; Louisville, Ky.; Lynchburg, Va.; Madison, Wis., Minneapolis, Minn.; Mobile, Ala.; Nashville, Tenn.; New Bedford, Mass.; Norfolk, Va.; Oakland, Calif.; Peterborough, Ont.; Quincy, Ill.; Reading, Pa.; Richmond, Ind.; Rochester, N. Y.; St. Catherines, Ont.; Sedalia, Mo.; Sioux City, Ia.; South Bend, Ind.; Spartanburg, S. C.; Springfield, Mass.; Superior, Wis.; Terre Haute, Ind.; Toledo, O.; Utica, N. Y.; Vicksburg, Miss.; Wilkinsburg, Pa.; Worcester, Mass.; York, Pa.

Where water is furnished free to public and eleemosynary institutions, a number of water works restrict the quantity furnished free to each consumer to a specified quantity and charge for any excess above this quantity. For example, churches in Altoona get 8000 cubic feet free semi-annually, schools in Champaign get 33,000 gallons per room per year free, and the City of Chattanooga gets 5,000,000 gallons per month free, but any excess over these quantities is charged for. In most cases where a large quantity of free water is furnished, it is metered and fair coöperation is given by the free consumers to the water works in restricting waste. A few water works report serious waste of free water and inability to obtain help in checking it from the free consumers.

Periods of adequacy and serviceability assumed in water works design

In designing new water works and extensions to existing works, there is a sharp distinction drawn in many problems between the period of serviceability of some portion of a plant and the period during which it will be adequate for the demands upon it, without extension or reinforcement. This distinction is clearly drawn by some water works officials who answered inquiries as to their experience in these matters, while other officials did not differentiate between the two phases of the subject. Consequently the summary of their replies is necessarily general.

The period of serviceability of the parts of a water works were reported as follows: source of supply, twenty-five to forty years; distribution reservoirs, twenty to fifty years; mains, fifty to one hundred years; galvanized service pipes, twenty-five to thirty years; boilers, twenty-five years; pumps, twenty-five to thirtyfive years.

The period of adequacy is determined by the rate of increase of consumption and the general character of the whole water works plant. The works taken as a whole are estimated to have an average period of adequacy of twenty to thirty years by most of the officials furnishing information on the subject, the highest estimate being fifty years. In laying mains in a distribution system that can be reinforced readily, the general opinion seems to be that the added capacity should provide for about ten years' growth, additional pumping equipment should be adequate for fifteen years' growth, and standpipes for twenty-five years' growth.

Several officials who advocated making certain of an ample supply for many years in advance, also expressed the opinion that there had been a tendency to keep the excess capacity of distribution systems and pumping equipment above current demands somewhat larger than was necessary.

Buying and storing coal

Of the 54 water works coöperating in this inquiry 21 could furnish no records of experience in buying coal, for 9 are gravity works, with only electrically operated booster pumps, 6 have motor-driven pumps using purchased current, 2 have their pumps driven by water power, 2 use gas as fuel and 2 use oil.

The coal for five of the water works is bought on analysis, and four more buy it subject to analysis. Seven water works restrict. supplies to coal from mines known to furnish satisfactory grades. Several check the quality by occasional boiler tests. Most of the remaining buy only from reputable dealers. A small proportion report buying small supplies for storage whenever the market is favorable and more coal will be needed in a few months.

No water works reports attempting to store more than six months' supply, and the average supply in storage is for considerably less. than that period. One works stores coal under water; several report a desire to store coal but inability to do so because available grades deteriorate when stored. Uniformity in the coal is generally reported as highly desirable, because firemen handling only one grade do better than if they must fire several grades during the year.

Notices for shutting-off mains

Great variation in the practice in 54 water works in giving notice of proposed shutting-off of mains is evident.

The time between the giving of the notice and the shutting-off of the water ranges from fifteen minutes to thirty-six hours.

Notice is served by advertisements in newspapers by eight works; in one case for all shut-offs, and in seven only for shut-offs affecting large districts.

Telephone notice is given by one works, whenever practicable. Five works mail notices if time permits.

The general practice is to give a verbal notice or deliver a printed

notice to each consumer by a messenger or inspector. One works reports printed notices are unsatisfactory because leaving them with children or servants does not insure their receipt by responsible persons; messengers repeat their visits to make sure a responsible person at each premises is notified. Another works tries to serve notice in the morning, when a responsible person can usually be found at home.

No warning about possible injury of kitchen boilers, while water is shut off, is given by 18 works, but three believe it should be. A notice of this danger or instructions to open the highest hot water faucet after the water is shut off is given by 24 works. The notice issued at Rochester, N. Y., reads:

Open the highest hot water faucet in your house or building while the water main in the street is shut off, and leave this faucet open until the water is turned on again. As a further precaution it is advised that the fire in the range or stove connected with the boiler be kept very low or damped entirely.

Two works report claims for damages due to injuries to kitchen boilers caused by shutting-off water and one of them reports paying claims of this nature. A number of works have rules disclaiming responsibility for such injury, and one company uses a contract form containing a clause releasing it from responsibility for such injuries.

Laying pipe under railway tracks

The vibration of railway tracks under passing trains sets up tremors in the underlying earth. The extent and strength of these tremors depend upon the character of the soil, being small, as a rule, where the earth is hard and dense and quite marked in soft, wet material. Where the earth is firm and the cover over the main is several feet of well tamped backfill, the tremors have little or no apparent effect on the main. Where the tremors are heavy, great difficulty is sometimes experienced in keeping the joints tight and trouble of this kind is usually encountered to some extent.

Two general classes of measures to prevent leaking joints are in use. One is to use steel pipe under the road-bed, so as to avoid the use of joints where tremors occur in the earth, or to use 16-foot pipe lengths with the joints between instead of under the tracks, or to embed the main in concrete, either plain or reinforced, to give it