At the onset of the computing era, computers were designed and built with particular applications in mind. For example, SEAC, the Standards Electronic Automatic Computer, described elsewhere in this volume, was built at NBS in the late 1940s principally to handle certain classes of mathematical problems. SEAC had a manual keyboard for direct input, a teletype printer for direct output and punched paper tape for indirect operation. The idea of sharing the information from this computer with another computer was not one of the original concepts in the design. Very few computers were operational at the time, so such opportunities were greatly limited. Communication among humans was accomplished using the telephone, teletype, and typewriter, and these devices did not automatically lend themselves to machine-machine communication.

As computers became more common and areas of application increased, connecting computers to share the processing load or to share data became more important. SEAC and DYSEAC, for example, were connected at NBS in the 1950s. The electronic language of nearly all machines was, and continues to be, binary code, ones and zeros. Programmers encoded commands for the machines and data in binary code. Eventually higher level languages were developed so that commands were easier to write and debug. Alphabetic characters, numerals, and punctuation marks were needed to develop and use such higher-level languages. Each character had to be represented as some combination of binary digits. The problem was that different computers used different combinations of ones and zeros to represent the basic characters. This meant that an 'a' on one machine might have the same representation as an 'm' on another machine or, more commonly, a‘<' on one machine would be '!' on another. A related problem occurred when one used computers to sort lists of alphanumeric data. In some code sets, letters preceded numerals, while in others the reverse was true. Since sorting algorithms treated the binary representations like numbers, a list sorted on one computer could differ in order from the same list sorted on another. The only way that commands or data could move from one computer to another and be interpreted correctly would be for all parties to agree on what each combination of ones and zeros stood for. Work on such a code for information interchange started in 1961. By 1967 the "7-bit coded character set" had evolved to include the letters of the alphabet, numbers and certain control

characters required by the computers for a total of 128 characters. Obtaining a consensus on this standard was not simple because several sets of codes developed by large computer vendors were already in widespread use. Control Data, for example, used the 6-bit FIELDATA code, while IBM used the 8-bit EBCDIC. John L. Little, an NBS staff member from 1953 to 1987, held the positions of vice-chair and chair of X3.2.4, the national voluntary standards committee that developed the standard. X3.2.4 was chartered by the American Standards Association (ASA), which became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI) in 1966, then the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1969. Little worked for years to develop this standard. His strong, quiet, and deliberate way of working with members to obtain consensus was critical to the project's success. In 1968, USASI published the 7-bit American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).

Most modern developments in the computer field, such as the Internet, would not have been possible without this underlying [ASCII] code.

NBS was interested in these standards efforts in the late 1960s because of new legislative directions. On October 30, 1965, the Brooks Bill (P.L. 89-306) authorized the Department of Commerce:

"(1) to provide scientific and technological advisory services to other agencies with regard to ADP equipment and related systems;

(2) to make appropriate recommendations to the President concerning the establishment of uniform Federal automatic data processing standards; and

(3) to undertake research in computer science and technology as needed to fulfill the above responsibilities."

The Secretary of Commerce delegated the responsibility for implementing these provisions to the National Bureau of Standards. This legislative authority was augmented by Bureau of the Budget guidelines issued

in December 1966 that divided NBS work into five programmatic areas: advisory and consulting services, development of voluntary commercial standards, recommendations for uniform Federal standards, research on computer sciences and techniques, and computer service activities. Thus, research began in 1965 in the Center for Computer Sciences and Technology that would support voluntary national and international standards, and where appropriate be recommended for other agency use.

In November 1968, NBS sealed the fate of ASCII by adopting it as its first Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS). This standard, published as FIPS Pub 1, Code for Information Interchange [1], and issued under the signature of President Lyndon Johnson, specified a code and character set for use in Federal information processing systems, communications systems, and associated equipment. The endorsement of the Federal government, then the largest purchaser of computer equipment, was probably the single most important reason for the subsequent wide adoption of ASCII. (Fig. 1)

In practice, the 7-bit ASCII code is often embedded in a comparable 8-bit code, where the leftmost bit is set to zero. This is convenient because most computers transfer information in units of 8 bits (a “byte"). In some cases, the leftmost bit is used as a parity bit. In

01100001

"even" parity, for example, the leftmost bit is set so that the number of 1 bits is always even. This allows for automatic 1-bit error detection, a useful feature when transmission lines are noisy.

ASCII might well be called the first computer interoperability standard. Most modern developments in the computer field, such as the Internet, would not be possible without this underlying code. To this day, all data interchanges start and end as sets of ASCII characters. When all else fails, systems still will accept "plain text files" which are coded in ASCII. ASCII has turned out to be an excellent code that has lasted for over 30 years, and has been fundamental to the development of the U.S. computer industry.

Prepared by Martha M. Gray.

Bibliography

[1] Code for Information Interchange, Federal Information Processing Standards Publication (FIPS Pub) 1, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC, November 1, 1968.

[2] Charles E. Mackenzie, Coded Character Sets: History and Development, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, MA (1980). [3] Brooks Bill Issue Study of the National Bureau of Standards, NBS Report 10 608, Center for Computer Sciences and Technology, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC, September 1971.

01100010

01100011

01000001

01000010

01000011

The many thousands of papers produced by NIST/ NBS in the past century have mainly been technical in nature, directed to an audience of research scientists and engineers. Some, of course, were issued in a form more readily understandable to a wider audience, but were focused on groups of individuals with a particular interest in the subject matter. It is roughly estimated, however, that only a tiny percentage of our publications were written specifically with the consuming public in mind in order to make technical results generally available for their practical value to all citizens. The utility of these publications aimed at the general public is attested by the fact that hundreds of thousands of them were ordered by keenly interested consumers.

One of the earliest example of a publication designed for the public at large was the 1922 Circular [1] on constructing a radio, described elsewhere in this volume. In the following years, especially during the 1930s and 1940s, the Bureau had occasion to conduct tests of various types of material and then made selected reports available from the Government Printing Office at low cost. Many of these [2-9] had limited audiences, but a few [10, 11, 12] had broad appeal to homeowners and potential homebuyers. Thus How to Own Your Own Home [11] sold 300,000 copies in 1923, and Care and Repair of the Home [12], which drew fire from private sector business interests, sold more than 500,000 copies between 1931 and 1940.

The early 1970s saw an explosion of consumer activism in the United States, leading to the establishment of such Federal agencies as the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). In response to a Presidential order, the Bureau formed a Center for Consumer Product Technology (CCPT) with divisions for product engineering, product systems analysis, product safety, and law enforcement standards-and with a dedicated mission to provide useful information to the general public. Guides in the Consumer Information Series (CIS) [13-22] were prepared by Bureau experts and CCPT staff. These booklets were distributed in very large numbers and at very low cost through the Government Printing Office and by the Consumer Information Center in Pueblo, Colorado. (Fig. 1)

A special foreword in each publication, by the NBS Director, called attention to technological changes that affect products and the marketplace; the confusion that stems from the proliferation of products and materials

about which the shopper has little useful information; and the availability of results from the technical work that should be shared with the citizens who, after all, support the Bureau's work with their taxes.

The first Guide in the Series, NBS CIS1 Fibers and Fabrics [13], provided a detailed account of both natural (i.e., cotton, linen, silk, and wool) and 16 man-made fibers, describing for each material its properties, uses, and appropriate care. It also discussed blends and combinations, as well as the features of wash-and-wear fabrics. The information was presented in a form to facilitate user selection of fabrics that would satisfy personal needs and desires. In addition, the laundering or dry-cleaning recommendations and the susceptibility of some fabrics to flammability or application of excessive heat were probably of equally great value. A glossary defined the terms used to describe the manufacturing processes and attributes of the cited materials, and a table of trademarks of commercial synthetic materials, obtained from listings of the Federal Trade Commission, aided shoppers when encountering generic fabrics otherwise identified only by trade

names.

How to Own Your Own Home sold 300,000 copies in 1923, and Care and Repair of the Home, which drew fire from private sector business interests, sold more than 500,000 copies.

Tires Their Selection and Care [14] gave the automobile owner or driver a well-illustrated tutorial on the kinds (not brands) of tires available and how they should be chosen and maintained for optimum safety, efficiency, and cost savings. In addition to describing tire care and tire construction and features, the Guide addressed the factors that should influence tire selection, plus driving habits and effects that depend on the chosen tires and their care. Moreover, the publication pointed out that there was then no reliable system for grading tires in terms of quality, a situation that still prevails.

Information needed for selecting and applying adhesives for use in the home and hobby shop was made available in Adhesives for Everyday Use [15]. This practical guide described the different types of adhesives and their characteristics, along with typical applications for the various materials that are to be bonded and the end use of the application. It also illustrated and outlined the steps that should be taken when preparing the materials, applying the adhesives, and ensuring a strong bond.

Facts About Hearing and Hearing Aids [16] was prepared by NBS specialists in sound and testing, with assistance from a number of other agencies concerned with audiology (the science of measuring hearing capability) and the medical aspects of hearing and its loss. It gave a comprehensive description of the hearing process, the causes and treatment of hearing loss, and steps that might be taken to compensate for such loss, including the availability of well-described types of hearing aids then on the market. The guide offered suggestions on how to select a hearing aid, how to use it, and proper maintenance and care.

Based on Bureau research on paper and photographic film, Care of Books, Documents, Prints and Films [17] explained the composition and kinds of paper, and preservation techniques. It covered the nature of books and documents, the factors that degrade them over the course of time, and recommended methods of caring for them, as well as techniques for making minor repairs, letting professional restorers carry out major repairs and restoration of damaged books and documents. This guide also offered a short section on the appropriate care for photographic films, negatives, and prints.

A beautifully illustrated (in color, of course!) guide, Color in our Daily Lives [18], was one of the most popular publications in this series; it was distributed to classrooms across the country and to the general public. In easily readable textbook fashion, color was related to light, and families of color hues were shown for each of red, green, blue, and yellow. Similarly, there were illustrations of families of dark, light, vivid, and grayish colors; relationships among different colors with respect to hues, lightness, and vividness; and the influence on perception of colors when juxtaposed with other colors.

Color harmony, the use of colors by individuals (for cosmetics or apparel) or in various environments, and suggestions for experimentation were other topics included in the guide.

Starting in 1973, when What About Metric? [19] was published, the Bureau began a long, continuing campaign to acquaint the public with the decimal-based metric system, which was then being adopted by the rest of the world; more recent examples from the metric program are described elsewhere in this volume. The CIS Guide explained why metric was being adopted in almost all countries; the differences between customary (such as inches and pounds) measurements and those in the metric system (e.g., meters and grams); and how to convert from one system to the other.

The energy crisis of the early 1970s had a major impact on consumers as a result of fuel shortages and increasing fuel costs. Homeowners and renters were influenced to turn down thermostats and to wear extra clothing in the house, while at the same time considering longer term techniques for maintaining comfortable living conditions yet simultaneously saving money. Making the Most of Your Energy Dollars [20] presented information on the value of increasing different types of home insulation and the economic and climatic factors that should be considered in determining whether and how much to invest for these purposes. The guide offered sample worksheets for background calculations and referred readers to several available "How To" publications.

Corrosion of metal, which exacts a heavy economic toll on consumers and the nation, has long been a subject of study at NBS/NIST. Useful advice was therefore put together for the guide entitled Corrosion Facts for the Consumer [21]. This publication described the different types of corrosion, how to prevent or minimize it, where it occurs most frequently around the home and the automobile, how to remove corrosion when it occurs, and what protection techniques to look for when buying metal objects.

By the end of NBS/NIST's first century, almost everyone had become aware of and was gaining the benefits from bar code scanning, automated teller machines, and other now-commonplace reliance on computerization in daily life. However, in 1978 these "magical" systems were mysterious to most folks, but were explained to the public in the guide entitled Automation in the Marketplace [22]. Simple language described the Universal Product Code and the use of laser bar code scanners and electronic cash registers connected to computers. It set forth the advantages to consumers of automated systems installed in groceries,

retail stores, and banks, and alluded to NBS research in encryption to protect privacy and ensure security.

The foregoing summaries reflect not only a small subset of the institution's broad research programs, but also the impact that the results can have on the knowledge base for the citizenry. In particular, these publications as well as small brochures such as those for smoke detectors, home security, and home security alarms [23-25]-contained information that could be used immediately by all readers for practical purposes. Although the Consumer Information Series no longer exists per se, similar information is still provided to the general public through various releases to mass media. and resultant publicity.

The NBS authors whose CIS guides are listed in the bibliographic citations that follow evidence the wide range of technical talent characteristic of the NBS/NIST staff during its first century. Josephine M. Blandford was a senior NBS textile technologist responsible for research on evaluation and quality control of textile materials and apparel components, with two books published by the Apparel Research Foundation, Inc. F. Cecil Brenner, was a fiber scientist who served as Chief of the NBS Textile and Apparel Technology Center, then as the Tire Systems Division Chief at the National Highway Transportation Safety Safety Administration's Safety Research Laboratory, and later a consultant to the Environmental Protection Agency. He developed the government standard for tire safety and performance.

Karl F. Plitt was Chief of the Product Engineering Section, responsible for testing and research into safety and performance characteristics of products used by fire and law enforcement officials and the consuming public, including adhesives, plastics used for safety goggles and helmets, and children's toys. Edith L. R. Corliss, trained in physics, performed research in electricity, optics, and astronomy before becoming an expert in acoustics, measurement of hearing, and speech communications systems. William K. Wilson, a chemist, was Chief of the Paper Evaluation Section for 15 years, then a guest worker at the National Archives. [J. L. Gear was on the staff of the National Archives.]

Deane B. Judd, trained as a mathematician and physicist, was Assistant Chief of the Optics and Metrology Division and in charge of the Bureau's colorimetric work. His many awards included gold medals. from the Department of Commerce and the Illuminating Engineering Society and recognition by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, the Inter-Society Color Council, and the Optical Society of America. Louis E. Barbrow, a physicist who served as Chief of the Photometry and Colorimetry Section and Chief of the Optics Metrology Branch, later coordinated metric activities.