Scaling Analysis of Thermodynamic Properties in the Critical Region of Fluids Resonance Tunneling of Field Emitted Electrons Through Adsorbates on Metal Surfaces. Quantitative Electron Probe Microanalysis. . . . Limits for Qualitative Detection and Quantitative Determination Theory of Isoperibol Calorimetry for Laser Power and Energy Measurement Speed of Light From Direct Frequency and Wavelength Measurements Connecting Visible Wavelength Standards With X Rays and y Rays. Needs for Radioactivity Standards and Measurements in Different Fields The Topografiner: An Instrument for Measuring Surface Microtopography.. Introduction The National Bureau of Standards was established by Congress on March 3, 1901, with a charge to take custody of the standards of physical measurement in the United States and to solve "problems which arise in connection with standards." Although minor (and transient) variations occurred in the name of the institution, it was known for most of the century as NBS until Congress mandated a major name change, accompanied by new responsibilities, in 1988. Thus the "Bureau" completed its first century as the National Institute of Standards and Technology, or NIST. This volume commemorates the centennial by presenting brief accounts of selected classic publications of NBS/NIST which illustrate at the same time the rich history of its scientific and technical accomplishments and the broad scope of its contributions to the Nation. If asked to select one word that best describes the work of the institution, most people familiar with NBS/NIST would choose "measurement." Indeed, the theme of precise, accurate measurements runs through the first century's history. Seventeen years before the founding of NBS, Lord Kelvin wrote [1], "When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science." His statement captures very elegantly the philosophy and culture of NBS/NIST. The measurement methodology described in this volume runs the gamut from cutting-edge research in atomic physics to new ways of measuring the heat released in building fires; from measuring the response of the human eye to different colors to selecting the best sets of data for improving rocket engine performance; and from automating manufacturing processes to advising consumers on how to buy tires for their cars. These publications illustrate the support NBS/NIST has given to U.S. industry and to other Federal agencies in solving specific measurement problems, as well as the impact of Bureau work on the scientific community at large and on the general public. With so many diverse audiences to serve, communication of the results of its work has been a major concern since the founding of NBS. In a remarkably prescient article published in Science in 1905, Edward B. Rosa, one of the 11 initial NBS staff members (the only one with the title of "Physicist") outlined his vision of the future of the Bureau [2]. In addition to its mission to maintain the standards of measure of the United States and to advance the art of precise measurements, he added a third mandate, "To distribute information regarding instruments and standards to manufacturers, state and city sealers of weights and measures, scientific and technical laboratories, and to any and every one applying for such information”—a daunting challenge which the Bureau has taken very seriously. Rosa went on to stress the interdependence of the three functions and to explain that the distribution of information would be "accomplished through correspondence and the circulars and bulletins issued by the bureau," thereby setting the stage for the broad publication program illustrated in this book. There are, of course, other mechanisms by which the Bureau has disseminated its information. Staff members have described their work through lectures at academic and industrial establishments and to foreign audiences. Participation in national and international standards committees has been a very significant transfer mechanism. Thousands of guest workers from industry, academia, and other national laboratories have spent time working in Bureau laboratories, taking new technology and new ideas back to their home institutions (as envisioned by Rosa in his 1905 article). Unique facilities-the research reactor, synchrotron radiation source, and automated manufacturing research facility, to name only a few-have drawn scientists and engineers to NBS/NIST where they could carry out measurements that would be difficult or impossible elsewhere. Nevertheless, formal publications have arguably been the most influential single mechanism for the institution to reach its diverse audience over the century. It is the intention of this book to give the flavor of those publications. |