graphically depicted by M. Bert and others, and to impart the spirit and conditions of university life to the existing establishments, before attempting to give them a new form and a new name.

In the years that have elapsed since the project of reform was au thorized, buildings and equipments have been supplied at a cost amounting already in 1887 to $22,195,000, of which the cities bore $9,650,000, and the state the balance.1

The annual appropriations have meanwhile been more than doubled. In 1870 they amounted to no more than $1,152,773; at that time, says M. Fallières, the faculties very nearly covered their expenses by their receipts. In 1878 the credits for superior instruction had increased by $787,000; from 1878 to 1888 they were doubled; in 1889 they rose to the exact sum of $2,797,071. If from this amount be taken the receipts of the faculties, examination, diploma, and entrance fees, there remain $1,833,500 from the public treasury. It may be added that in 1892 the appropriations for superior instruction amounted to $3,065,718, of which $2,331,999 was for the faculties. The net proceeds from the state for this year can not be given, as no report has been published of the receipts from fees. The increase of the teaching forces has kept pace with the other improvements, as will be shown later.

While the internal life of the faculties has thus been enriched and expanded, measures have been maturing for giving them organic unity, civil personality, and autonomy. The advice of the faculties themselves with respect to the proposed law was sought at the outset by a circular letter addressed to them by the minister in order to secure

In his decennial report (1877-1887) M. Fallières refers to the new Sorbonne, since inaugurated with imposing ceremonies, and notes in addition the enlargement of the faculty of medicine at Paris, the construction of the school of pharmacy, the enlargement of the museum, and in the departments the following buildings projected or begun Building for the faculty of medicine, of science and letters at Bordeaux, the faculty of sciences at Toulouse, the faculties of medicine and of science at Lyons, the institution of chemistry in the faculty of science at Nancy, the faculty of science at Clermont, the faculty of medicine at Montpellier, the faculties at Caen, and the schools of Algiers. In addition to the above, he says, the following are nearly ready for operation: "The faculty of science at Rennes, the new faculty of letters at Toulouse, the faculties of justice and of letters, and the scientific departments of the faculties of science and of medicine at Montpellier, the faculties of law and of letters at Lyons, and the departments of the faculty of science at Lille.

Of these buildings, those which belong to the domain have been built entirely at the charge of the state; the others, those belonging to the faculties, have been erected at the common expense of the state and the cities, sometimes aided by the departments. The façades of these new buildings indicate the transformations which have been wrought in our superior instruction, but in order to become thoroughly informed upon the subject, it is necessary to enter the interior. These palaces, whose exteriors, often beautifully ornamented, serve for the passers-by as a sign of the dignity of science, are, within, veritable studios, arranged and equipped for purposes of instruction and study. But lately, our faculties had only lecture halls; at present there are everywhere laboratories for instruction and for researches, cabinets, libraries, study and conference halls; everywhere the laboratories, cabinets, and libraries are furnished."

the formal expression of their opinions. The measure is thus the outcome of large and varied experience and judgment.

The changes which it is designed to effect in the constitution of the faculties are clearly enunciated in the first two articles, to wit:

ARTICLE I. The universities are public establishments of higher education, whose purpose is instruction and culture by all the sciences (l'ensemble des sciences). "They are civil personalities." "They are named from the cities in which they are located."

ART. II. A university must comprise at least the four faculties of law, medicine, sciences, and letters; other establishments of superior instruction may also be incorporated with it at the instance of the minister.

The remaining articles (thirteen in number) define in detail the scholastic and administrative organization of the universities, the extent and limitation of their powers, the sources and control of their budgets.

To the foreign student, the most interesting thing about the scheme is its adherence to an organic type which is essentially French. Two principles nationalized in France by the Revolution and the Imperial University are conserved in the new ideal, the principle of state respon sibility in education and of the subordination of teaching bodies to civil authorities. To preserve these principles and yet give independence to the proposed universities was a delicate problem. Its solution is to be found in the measures proposed for maintaining the relations of the universities to the central administration on the one hand and on the other for transferring certain powers to the universities. These measures may be conveniently considered under three heads, the councils, the rectors, the control of finances.

The Councils.-Councils, supreme and academic, were a feature of the Imperial University; their functions as determined by the decree of 1808 were deliberative and advisory, and in certain cases judicial. They reflected, however, the will of the central authority, since their members were appointed either by the grand master or by the Emperor.

1

Transformed into representative bodies by subsequent legislation 1 they have largely substituted the professional for the official influence in the conduct of education. The law of February 27, 1880, under which the councils are at present organized, allowed 24 elected members out of a total of 60 in the superior council. Eleven of these elected members are chosen from the faculties. In the academic councils each faculty is represented by its dean and one member. In the latter council all matters pertaining to the local administration of the faculties, i. e., expenses, material appliances, promotions, are considered, and the conclusions formed are transmitted by the rectors to the minister of public instruction, who in turn refers them to the superior council. The superior council is, in fact, an advisory body for the

'By a law of March 15, 1850, the superior council comprised 16 elected members upon a total of 27; by a law of February 27, 1880, the elective policy was extended to the academic councils.

service of the minister, and has also final judgment in certain cases of appeal. Complaint has arisen because the council has no initiative, but simply considers the matters submitted by the minister.1

In reality all matters of importance are thus submitted, and the decrees of the minister respecting programmes, the creation of new faculties and new chairs, the requirements for degrees, etc., voice the matured opinions of this imposing body.

In 1885 two important measures were adopted in the interests of the faculties. The first of these, the decree of July 25, revived a right conferred upon all institutions of public instruction in 1801, but practically nullified as regards the faculties in 1875. This was the right to hold property, to receive gifts, and to manage their own estates. The decree also permitted funds to be given to the faculties by cities, departments, private corporations, and individuals.

In order that the faculties should exercise this right the same decree instituted a general council of the faculties of each académie composed as follows: the rector, president, the deans of the faculties, and two delegates from each faculty elected by their colleagues. Thus, at once, civil personality and organic form were secured.

A second decree of the same year (December 28, 1885) carried the work of organization still further. This decree extended the authority of the general council of each group of faculties to all matters pertaining to the internal conduct of the group, such as the courses and coördination of studies, estimates of expenditure, the division of common funds, discipline of students, etc. The same decree constituted a council of each faculty composed of the titular or full professors, and an assembly of each comprising full professors and agrégés.

The council was empowered to administer the affairs of the particular faculty in accordance with the laws and decrees and subject to the approval of the academic rector. The assembly deliberates upon the scholastic work of the faculty. The dignity and authority of the dean were confirmed by the decree, but the choice of the dean was virtually given to the faculties, the minister being authorized to make the appointment every three years from two lists furnished, the one by the assembly of the individual faculty, the other by the council general of the academic group.

Under the proposed law the academic council ceases to have jurisdiction over the faculties. The general council of a group of faculties becomes the council of the university when the group receives the

1Says H. Marion: The pedagogical prerogatives of the council, although large, are considered by many people too limited, because the council is merely consultative; its advice is given only when demanded; because its members have no initiative; because, in fine, the minister is not obliged to follow the advice he has sought. In fact, all the ministers of public instruction have always promulgated the projects of decreus and orders submitted to the council in accordance with its decisions. (L'Éducation dans l'Université, p. 27.

benefit of the law. Subject only to the rulings of the minister in advice with the superior council of education and to the legal preroga tives of the academic rector, this council becomes the governing body of the university.

The academic rector (an appointee, it must be remembered, of the minister of public instruction) will be the administrative head of the university of his district. Nominally his position will be the same as that of the rectors of the ancient universities, although his authority may be less. He will execute the decisions of the university council, which must not conflict with the general laws and decrees.

The correlation of all grades of instruction is an essential element of the French ideal of public instruction. It has not been lost sight of in the university project, nor is it left entirely to the superior council, which remains unaffected by the proposed law. The removal of superior instruction from the academic council has already been noted. The unity of scholastic orders thus lost is restored in the local administration by the power granted the rector to convoke at his will the university council, the council general of faculties (not transformed into universities), and the academic council, to deliberate upon the common interests of secondary and superior instruction. (Title II, article 15.)

Control of funds.-Absolute control of their own funds is a power which the extreme advocates of decentralization would have vested in the individual universities. This policy is, however, not possible in the French system so long at least as state appropriations are the main dependence of higher education. That this is now the case will readily be seen by examining the financial showings.

The present sources of income, as specified in the bill, are private funds belonging to the universities, gifts and bequests of private indi viduals, societies, communes and departments, tuition and examination fees, state appropriations. (Title I, article 2.)

The income from private property and bequests is as yet a trifling sum; tuition and examination fees, which are turned over to the state treasury, amounted in 1887 (the latest year for which the data are given) to about two fifths the total income. The state contributed then about three-fifths of the income, or $1,354,583 on a total of $2,296,540.

The proposed law following the decrees of 1885 already noted vests the control of gifts and legacies in the council of the universities. The receipts from tuition fees and the state appropriations will be managed as heretofore by special agents appointed by the minister of finance. The report of these operations must be submitted each year as a part of the report of the expenditures of the department of public instruction.

It should be noted that every organization whose contributions to

the support of the university are accepted may be represented in the sessions of the university councils in which the financial affairs and the annual reports upon the state of instruction are discussed. Cities may be represented by their mayors, departments by the presidents of their councils, etc. (Title I, article 12). Thus the sense of a common interest and responsibility is stimulated. Should the pending measure be carried the number of universities will be less than the number of academic divisions, as at least four faculties will be required for organization under the law. Each university will be created by a special decree of the council of state, based upon the proposition of the superior council of public instruction. Seven seems to be the largest number of universities that the Government is prepared to recognize. Without going further into the details of this project, which is likely to be much modified during the debate, enough has been said to show that it in no way impairs the authority of the state and the organic unity of the public teaching and administrative services.

B.-DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEACHING FUNCTIONS OF THE FACULTIES.

It will be interesting at this point to consider the most important change that has taken place in the faculties since their origin; i. e., the development of teaching functions. To understand this portion of their history it will be necessary to go back to the Revolution of 1789. Provision for medical instruction after 1789.-After the suppression of the old universities (1793) the medical profession was the first to make its urgent needs felt. The very next year, 1794, three schools of health (Écoles de Santé) were established to prepare health officers (officiers de Santé) for the service of hospitals, and especially for military and marine hospitals. Three additional schools of health were created in 1803, and to them all the term faculty was applied by the decree organizing the university (March 17, 1808). The subsequent history of these schools belongs to that of the medical faculties.

The necessity of maintaining medical training had also induced individual physicians to open clinics wherever there were hospitals. Around these practical demonstrations there grew up courses of theoretical instruction in anatomy, therapeutics, etc. These courses were gradually developed into schools and brought under official control. In a statute of October 28, 1808, they are referred to "as secondary schools of medicine, henceforth to be termed colleges of medicine," a title however which seems to have been seldom employed.

In 1855 and 1856, apparently under the impulse given by the law of 1850, which favored the liberty of teaching, several medical schools were established, and additions were still made to the number so late as 1880. Thus the existence of schools for practical instruction in medicine side by side with the medical faculties is accounted for. (See prospectus, pp. 92-95). Despite the deplorable condition of this profession,