Leipzig, as in other parts of Germany, the agitation against demagogues (Demagogenhetze) caused by the assassination of Kotzebue in 1819, which for a time tyrannized entire Germany, destined the first organized efforts in behalf of gymnastics to an early death. In order to uproot this "evil dangerous to the state," the police of Leipzig, in 1825, ordered the parallel and horizontal bars and other apparatus of the societies to be sawed off. This did not prevent the disciples of Jahn from continuing their exercises in secret. It is important to note that in 1824 the educational institute, established by Hander in Leipzig, mentioned gymnastics as an integral part of its course of study. All indications point to the fact that this institution was the first school in Saxony in which gymnastics was. fostered. For the further development of physical education in Leipzig, the two, afterward very distinguished physicians, Bock and Schreber, were especially active. They familiarized the people, by means of example, the spoken word, and the press, with the aims and efforts of bodily exercise.

In Dresden a few army fencing masters had made use of parallel and horizontal bars in their instruction, but with little effect. The conditions changed, however, when Joh. Ad. Ludwig Werner (a retired army officer) opened a gymnastic hall in 1831 in Dresden, and conducted it with great skill. Most of the private and public schools aided the enterprise, so that the number of its pupils soon rose to several hundreds. Also girls' gymnastics found much favor. It can not be denied that the instruction in gymnastics given by Werner contains much charlatanism, but the fact remains that he induced many noted people of authority and influence to examine into the educational merits of physical exercise, a thing that had been despised heretofore.

Almost at the same time (in 1833) Otto Heubner established in his native city, Plauen, in Vogtland, a gymnastic hall that was well patronized. As a consequence, in other cities of the Vogtland similar institutions were opened.

Werner in 1836 submitted to the Saxon chambers of deputies (Ständekammern) two of his works, with the request "to take suitable measures to secure for physical education of the youth the same consideration that is given to intellectual education." The matter caused considerable discussion in both chambers. The result was the passage of a resolution "to introduce gymnastics into all the high and normal schools in the Kingdom, and to appropriate 1,500 reichsthaler ($1,125) per annum for that purpose."

Without delay gymnastics was introduced (in 1837) into all state high schools (gymnasia) and training schools for teachers. Though it took some time before satisfactory results could be shown, the resolution referred to had established something which was destined to be of lasting influence. Many years after that, namely, in August, 1876, mnastics made an integral branch of the course of study in all gymnasia, "real schools," and seminaries), oblig

atory for all students, except cripples and invalids. Two hours per week was the time appointed for regular gymnastic exercises. At present the faculties of these schools have each a teacher who has passed the state examination in gymnastics for high schools and conducts the exercises. Every secondary school of whatever kind in Saxony has a gymnastic hall and suitable grounds. A state inspector of gymnastics appointed by the minister of education supervises the work of physical training in secondary schools of the Kingdom.

The first institutions for gymnastics were intended for male youth only, but from the very beginning men of riper age became interested in physical exercise, and hence boys, youths, and men exercised together. When a boy had succeeded by means of good results to become a "Vorturner" (a section-leader), he was in some institutions by virtue of his position allowed to take part in the deliberations of the members. This led in many towns of Saxony, shortly after 1840, to the formation of gymnastic societies for adults only, who, however, made it a special object to facilitate and foster physical exercise among the boys of their town. They offered special instruction for boys in their gymnastic halls, or in some cases placed their own teachers at the disposal of the public schools. Soon followed efforts to draw the girls into the movement by interesting the parents in the matter, and appointing special hours for girls' gymnastics. The societies which did most in this direction were those of Plauen, Leipzig, and Dresden. In these cities gymnastics for children reached a high standard of excellence.

Gymnastic societies developed in Saxony especially during the period from 1843 to 1848. Fifty-four flourishing societies sent delegates to the convention of gymnasts who met November 1, 1846, in Dresden. At this time the society at Dresden was the largest; it assumed a leading position by affording an example for imitation in its admirable organization to all other societies in the Kingdom. Many of its members aided energetically the periodical, The Gymnast (Der Turner), which was first issued in January, 1846. This publication was so well conducted and found so much favor that during the "second German gymnastic festival," held in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1847, the paper was made the official gymnastic organ of entire Germany. The society in Dresden also arranged for two courses for the training of gymnastic teachers. The society's propositions to the minister of education concerning the estab lishment of a state training school for gymnastic teachers found official approval. The minister announced as early as March 16, 1849

That he considered it his imperative duty to give gymnastics a place of equal importance with other branches of public education; that, therefore, he had concluded to establish a training school for gymnastic teachers who could conduct such exercises in the light of pedagogic science, and that he had ordered the necessary preparation for the opening of such a school.

At Easter of 1849 the institution was to be opened, but the insur

rection which took place during the following May prevented the execution of this plan. Not until October 23, 1850, was the institution formally opened, and the principal, Moritz Kloss (who afterward became favorably known through his tireless and meritorious exertion in behalf of gymnastics), was introduced into his new office.

The insurrection mentioned was the cause of preventing the contemplated introduction of gymnastics into the lower schools. Many noted gymnasts from the different societies for physical culture had partici pated in the insurrection (popularly styled the revolution of 1848-49), and after it was quelled an undiscriminating reactionary movement against gymnastic societies was inaugurated, so that the heretofore remarkable development of gymnastic art was checked. At many places it was entirely destroyed, and its practitioners were pursued with relentless severity. At the close of the sixth decade life in gymnastic societies took a fresh impetus. When preparations were made for the third "national gymnastic festival," to be held in Leipzig in 1863, the Saxon societies for physical culture began a vigorous activity, which secured the success of the national festival and the societies' subsequent existence. The wars of 1864 (with Denmark)) and 1866 with Austria) impaired the activity of the gymnastic societies in Germany but little, and the glorious war of 1870 offered the Saxon gymnasts opportunities, both in the field and at home, for giving energetic expres sion to their patriotism.

Political discussions have been prohibited on principle in the Saxon gymnastic societies. This has enabled them to grow undisturbed by police authority. At present there is in Saxony no city or good sized village without at least one gymnastic society; even many small settlements have a society of that kind. A statistical enumeration of January 1, 1892, records 615 cities and towns with 757 gymnastic societies that have 87,388 members over 14 years of age. Of these, 51,901 are active gymnasts, led by 4,597 Vorturner (leaders of sections). If we consider the fact that the entire empire had at the same date 4,567 societies with 447,046 members, of whom 227,628 were active gymnasts, it is seen that the Kingdom of Saxony occupies the sixth place in regard to the number of societies, the fifth place in regard to the number of members, and the fourth place in regard to the number of active gymnasts.

The royal government approached the question of gymnastics again in the year 1857 by adopting a set of rules for the examination of teachers of gymnastics, and in 1863 it permitted the introduction of gymnastics into lower schools by "recommending it to the local authorities most urgently." But it is to be regretted that few cities and villages availed themselves of the opportunity, for, according to the statistical report of the German gymnastic union of 1869, the schools of only 27 cities and 3 villages, and 4 State schools situated in villages, had obligatory gymnastic exercises in their courses of study. Hence not 10 per cent of the school population received gymnastic training.

The new school law of April 26, 1873, admitted gymnastics as a "dietetic means of education for boys as well as for girls" among the essential branches of study in all the schools. The school authorities now began to introduce gymnastics into elementary schools where hitherto it had not been done. Since the law fails to state at what year of age the exercises in gymnastics are to begin, the curricula of the differ ent schools and cities vary on this point quite considerably, but it comes very near the truth to say that, as a rule, gymnastics begin with the fourth year of school, or the tenth year of age. Also with respect to the time devoted to physical exercises some differences are noticeable. In some communities only one hour per week is given to gymnastics, while in the majority two hours are given.

The transitional regulations issued to secure an effective execution of the new school law of 1873 permitted the postponement of the introduction of gymnastics until 1878 in communities where the necessary institutions could not at once be established. The local authorities of many country schools took advantage of this privilege, and after the transitional period of five years was passed numerous petitions asked the minister and the house of deputies for a further extension of the time. Statistical material gathered by the president of the Saxon gymnastic teachers' society from the reports of the school inspectors, confirms the fact that only one of the school districts of Saxony has introduced gymnastics in all its schools; that furthermore in 23 districts a number of schools is still without gymnastic apparatus. In 17 of these districts no less than 50 per cent (the highest was 93-8 per cent) of the schools fail to live up to the law.

It is the rule in elementary schools (Volksschulen) to have gymnastics conducted by the regular class teachers. Very few of these schools employ special teachers. In extensive institutions, such as city ward schools in Leipzig and Dresden, it has been found expedient to place this instruction in the hands of specially trained and experienced

teachers.

IV. PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICA.

For the first suggestions made in this country relating to physical training one must search far back into colonial history. But it seems to be certain that a statesman who as much as any other made our national existence possible was the first American to propose that physical training be made a part of the curriculum of an educational institution. That honor appears to belong to Benj

Dr. Franklin was fond of exercise from his c being the sport in which he excelled and in which When a young man in London nished hims

anklin. wimming most.

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feats, and seriously considered remaining there to open a swimming school. An advantageous offer from a Philadelphia merchant influenced him to return to America, and led to the career of usefulness with which every well-informed American is familiar. In regard to his residence in Philadelphia, Dr. Franklin afterwards said:1

I had, on the whole, abundant reason to be satisfied with my being established in Pennsylvania. There were, however, some things that I regretted, there being no provision for defense, nor for a complete education of youth; no militia, nor any college. I, therefore, in 1743, drew up a proposal for establishing an academy; and at that time, thinking the Rev. Richard Peters, who was out of employ, a fit person to superintend such an institution, I communicated the project to him; but he, having more profitable views in the service of the proprietors, which succeeded, declined the undertaking, and, not knowing another at that time suitable for such a trust, I let the scheme lie awhile dormant.

In 1749, the circumstances being favorable, he again turned his thoughts to the establishment of an academy. His first step was to secure the cooperation of a number of active friends; the next was to write and publish a pamphlet entitled Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania. In this he proposed that some persons of leisure and public spirit be incorporated with power to erect an academy for the education of youth, to govern the same, etc.

That a house be provided for the academy, if not in the town not many miles from it; the situation high and dry, and, if it may be, not far from a river, having a garden, orchard, meadow, and a field or two.

That the house be furnished with a library, maps, mathematical instruments, and philosophical apparatus.

That the boarding schools diet together, plainly, temperately, and frugally. That, to keep them in health, and to strengthen and render active their bodies, they be frequently exercised in running, leaping, wrestling, and swimming.

As to their studies it would be well if they could be taught everything that is useful and everything that is ornamental. But art is long and their time is short. It is therefore proposed that they learn those things most useful and most ornamental; regard being had to the several professions for which they are intended.

And all this, be it remembered, was written before Roussean's great work appeared and before either Fellenberg, Gutsmuths, or Jahu was even born.

"This pamphlet," said Dr. Franklin, "I distributed among the principal inhabitants gratis, and as soon as I could suppose their minds a little prepared by the perusal of it, I set on foot a subscription for opening and supporting an academy."

Thus, by his own personal efforts, was founded in the same year the academy which a few years later became the University of Pennsyl vania. One feature upon which the founder laid great stress was the "English school," and the first years of the institution were marked by discussions as to the relative merits of English and classical education. In the course of time the classics gained the ascendency and Franklin's favorite scheme of an English school was neglected. His later writings

In his Autobiography.