that are athletical for games, martial for the field, and physical for the health.

For health [he says] it is most manifest that exercise is a mighty great mistress, whether it be to confirm that which we have by nature, or to procure that which we have not by nature, or to recover that, by industry and diligence, which we have almost lost by misfortune and negligence. The exercises which do serve to this healthy end do best serve for this my purpose, and though an healthy body be most apt and active, both for gaming to get wagers and warring to win victories, yet in my exercises I neither mean to dally with the gamester nor to fight with the warrior, but to mark which way I may best save students who have most need of it, being still assailed by those enemies of health which wax more eager and hot the more weak and cold that exercise is.

Mulcaster recognizes three degrees of exercise: First, the preparative, which served to qualify the body by degrees for the main exercise; second, the post-parative, following the main exercise to reduce the body by gentle degrees to the normal quietness, and, third, the main exercise itself, which is inclosed between the two preceding. It does not require very keen discernment to see in this the similarity to the more modern Swedish practices!

From "the whole heap of exercises named by Galen and other writers" he picks out these as best suited to his purpose for indoor use: Loud speaking, singing, loud reading, talking, laughing, weeping, holding the breath, dancing, wrestling, fencing, and scourging the top.

For out of doors he selects: Walking, running, leaping, swimming, riding, hunting, shooting, and playing at ball. To each of these exercises he gives a full chapter, detailing the benefits to be derived, and showing what injuries might follow injudicious use.

The author then considers in the same thorough manner the six circumstances which are to be considered in exercise, namely, "the nature of the exercise which ye intend to use; the person and body which is to be exercised, the place wherein, the time when, the quality how much, and the manner how."

The last chapter, that deals with physical education, is headed

An advertisement to the training master. Why both the teaching of the mind and the training of the body be assigned to the same master. The incongruities which ensue where the body and soul be made particular subjects to several professions. That whoso shall execute anything well must of force be fully resolved of the excellency of his own subject. Out of what kind of writers the exercising masters may store himself with cunning. That the first ground would be laid by the cunningest workman. That private discretion in any executor is of more efficacy than his skill.

Throughout, the work is distinguished by a clear comprehension of the subject and a close attention to detail that betokens a practical acquaintance that must have been obtained in his school, although no direct statement to that effect appears, and the indications are that the Merchant Taylors' was the first school in the modern sense in which physical training found a place.

But Mulcaster left the school after a serious disagreement with the Merchant Taylors' Company, and even if he had placed gymnastics in

the curriculum, it is evident that his successor was not disposed to follow up the innovation, for the effects of his labors in that direction were certainly not permanent.

OTHER DEFENDERS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING.

Martin Luther earnestly advocated physical exercise for the people, principally on the ground that it tended to prevent them from falling into habits of drunkenness, vice, and gaming. Melancthon and Zwingli were also believers in gymnastics, and in Trotzendorff's school at Goldberg the boys were permitted to wrestle and to run, but, strangely enough, were forbidden to go upon the ice or throw snowballs in winter, or to bathe in cold water in summer.

Other writers appeared occasionally in defense of gymnastics, the most notable being Sir Thomas Elyot (1495-1546), Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606), and John Milton (1608-1674).

Sir Thomas Elyot's "Boke named the Gouernour" appeared in 1531, and, as its title indicates, treats of "the education or fourme of bringing up of the childe of a gentilman, which is to haue authoritie in a publike weale" [commonwealth). After describing at length the mental curriculum which he would have his pupil pursue, the author says:

All thonghe I haue hitherto aduaunced the commendation of lernyng, specially in gentilmen, yet it is to be considered that continuall studie without some manner of exercise, shortly exhausteth the spirites vitall, and hyndereth naturall decoction and digestion, wherby mannes body is the sooner corrupted and brought into diuers sickenessis, and finallye the life is thereby made shorter: where contrayrye wise by exercise, whiche is a vehement motion (as Galene prince of phisitions defineth) the healthe of man is preserued, and his strength increased.

The exercises he especially commends as most fitting for gentlemen are wrestling, running, swimming, the handling of weapons, especially the sword and battle axe, and horsemanship. He speaks favorably of hunting, hawking, and dancing of the proper kind, and praises archery as the best of all exercises for every class of people.

Mercurialis was an Italian physician whose reputation was already great before the publication of his greatest work "De Arte Gymnastica."1

This book is a perfect mine of information relating to ancient gymnastics. It was written in advocacy of exercise as a hygienic measure, and its arguments are enforced by facts and testimony from no less than one hundred and twenty-three classical authors.2

'The first edition of this book was issued before the publication of Mulcaster's "Positions," since that writer quotes freely from it. Other editions bear the imprint of 1587, 1601, and 1672, the edition of 1601 being the fourth.

The character and scope of the work may be shown by the following chapter titles:

Book First: Chapter 1, concerning the beginnings of medicine; chapter 2, concerning hygiene, and what may be drawn therefrom; chapter 3, what gymnastics is, and how many kinds; chapter 4, concerning the subject of gymnastics, and the praises of it; chapter 5, at wha and in what way gymnastics may be taken; chapter 6,

Milton's idea of physical training related principally to preparation for warfare, as this extract from his Treatise on Education shows:

This institution of breeding which I here delineate shall be equally good both for peace and war; therefore about an hour and a half ere they eat at noon should be allowed for exercise and due rest afterwards. The exercise which I commend first is the exact use of their weapon, to guard and to strike safely with the edge or point; this will keep them healthy, nimble, and strong, and well in breath, is also the likeliest means to make them grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a gallant and fearless courage, which being tempered with seasonable lectures and precepts to them of true fortitude and patience will turn into a native and heroic valor and make them hate the cowardice of wrong doing.

They must be practiced in all the locks and gripes of wrestling, wherein Englishmen were wont to excel, as need may often be in fight to tug or grapple and to close. And this, perhaps, will be enough wherein to prove and heat their single strength.

About two hours before supper they are, by a sudden alarum or watchword, to be called out of their military motions under sky or covert, according to the season, as was the Roman wont; first on foot, then, as their age permits, on horseback, to all the arts of cavalry; that having in sport, but with much exactness, and daily muster, served out the rudiments of their soldiership in all the skill of embattling, marching, encamping, fortifying, besieging, and battering, with all the helps of ancient and modern strategems, tactics, and warlike maxims, they may, as it were, out of a long war, come forth renowned and perfect commanders in the service of their country.

concerning the gymnastics of the ancients; chapter 7, concerning the various kind of men who may be gathered together in a gymnasium; chapter 8, concerning the different parts of gymnasiums; chapter 9, concerning the palestra and other parts of the gymnasium; chapter 10, concerning the baths of the gymnasium and also concerning the stadium; chapter 11, concerning the reclining at the feasts of the ancients, and to this extent concerning the origin of the custom of feasting together in the day; chapter 12, concerning the authors of gymnastics and the attendants of gymnasiums; chapter 13, concerning the differences between the three kinds of gymnastics: the warlike, the legitimate, or medical, and the vicions, or athletic; chapter 14, concerning the vicious, or athletic, gymnastics; chapter 15, concerning the manner of living of the athlete.

Book Second: Chapter 1, what exercise is, and in what it differs from labor and gesticulation; chapter 2, concerning the division of medical gymnastics; chapter 3, concerning dancing; chapter 4, concerning the game of ball; chapter 5, concerning the game of ball as played by the Latins; chapter 6, concerning pantomime, or the third division of dancing; chapter 7, concerning the end of dancing and the place; chapter 8, concerning wrestling; chapter 9, concerning boxing, the pancratium, and cestuses; chapter 10, concerning running; chapter 11, concerning leaping; chapter 12, concerning the discus and the halteres [dumb bells]; chapter 13, concerning throwing.

Book Third: Chapter 1, concerning the progress of the work and the reason for presenting the treatise; chapter 2, concerning walking; chapter 3, whether it may be an exercise to stand erect; chapter 4, concerning the kinds of hand-to-hand fights; chapter 5, concerning some other kinds of exercise; chapter 6, concerning the holding of the breath; chapter 7, concerning crying aloud and other exercises of the voice; chapter 8, concerning the cricilasia [the whip-top], the trocus [the trundling hoop], and the pilamalleus [a game played with wooden balls and mallets, the source from which modern croquet sprang]; chapter 9, concerning horsemanship; chapter 10, concerning chariot riding; chapter 11, concerning riding in the litter and the chair; chapter 12, concerning shaking made by hanging beds and cradles, and

JOHN LOCKE'S UTTERANCES AND INFLUENCE.

But the influence of each of these authors was at best only temporary, and none of them was a link in the chain that connected the ancient with modern gymnastics. After Montaigne the next writer that may be so considered was John Locke, whose Thoughts on Education was published in 1693.

Locke's ideas were undoubtedly influenced by the writings of Rabelais and Montaigne, and possibly those of Elyot, but whatever may have been their source, it is certain that he set them forth in a clear and philosophical style peculiarly his own, and though some of his recommendations are at variance with the teachings of modern medical science, he must be considered as one of the most conspicuous advocates of rational physical training. His utterances upon the subject relate more to the preservation of the health than do those of either of his concerning the couch; chapter 13, concerning soiling and fishing; chapter 14, concerning swimming; chapter 15, concerning hunting.

Book Fourth: Chapter 1, concerning the reason for proceeding, and concerning the use of exercise; chapter 2, confutation of the opinion of them who condemn exercise for the healthy; and concerning the necessity of exercising and the advantages; chapter 3, disapprobation of them who suppose that all men should be exercised; chapter 4, they are confuted who wish the accustomed only to be exercised; chapter 5, concerning the varieties of exercises; chapter 6, concerning the degrees of health and disease; chapter 7, whether diseased bodies may come together to be exercised in any way; chapter 8, concerning the exercising of the infirm and of old men; chapter 9, concerning the exercising of the healthy; chapter 10, concerning the places in which the exercises should be done; chapter 11, concerning the proper time for exercises; chapter 12, how much exercise should be taken; chapter 13, concerning the manner of exercising.

Book Fifth: Chapter 1, concerning the order of the progress, and concerning some things deserving to be known; chapter 2, concerning the various effects of exercises; chapter 3, concerning the effects of dancing; chapter 4, concerning the effects of games of ball; chapter 5, concerning the advantages and disadvantages of wrestling; chapter 6, concerning the capabilities of boxing, the pancration, and the cestuses; chapter 7, concerning the nature of running; chapter 8, what leap may be best; chapter 9, concerning the conditions of the halteres [dumb-bells]; chapter 10, concerning the effects of the discuses and of throwing; chapter 11, concerning the qualities of walking; chapter 12, again concerning the qualities of walking.

Book Sixth: Chapter 1, the effect of standing erect; chapter 2, concerning the effects of boxing; chapter 3, concerning the qualities of certain other exercises; chapter 4, concerning the virtues of holding the breath; chapter 5, concerning the virtues of the exercises of the voice, and first concerning crying aloud and singing; chapter 6, concerning the qualities of reading aloud, conversation, laughter, and weeping; chapter 7, concerning the qualities of the cricilasia, the trochus, and the pilamalleus; chapter 8, concerning the virtues of horsemanship; chapter 9, concerning the qualities of riding in general; chapter 10, concerning the particular qualities of riding in the carriage, the litter, and the chair; chapter 11, concerning the virtues of being borne in a hanging bed, a cradle, and a ship; chapter 12, concerning the effects of swimming and fishing; chapter 13, concerning the conditions of hunting.

predecessors, and in this he was influenced, like Montaigne, by his own bodily ailments. In his Essay on Study he says:

The principal end why we are to get knowledge here is to make use of it for the benefit of ourselves and others in this world; but if but gaining it we destroy our health, we labor for a thing that is useless in our hands. He that sinks his vessel by overloading it, though it be with gold and silver and precious stones, will give his owner but an ill account of his voyage.

His treatise on Education opens in the same strain, the first sentences being:

A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full description of a happy state in this world. He that has these two has little more to wish for; and he that wants either of them will be but little the better for anything else.

Locke followed directly in Montaigne's footsteps in earnestly opposing "cockering and tenderness" by which he believed most children's constitutions are spoiled, or at least harmed. He would have them accustomed to endure extremes of heat and cold, and to illustrate the possibilities of the human body for endurance cites the Scythian phisosopher who used to go naked in frost and snow, and the children of Malta who are reconciled to the heat by being kept stark naked from their cradles till they are 10 years old.

He believed in the efficacy of swimming and open air exercises generally, enforcing his argument with the observation that "if my master be always kept in the shade and never exposed to the sun and wind for fear of his complexion, it may be good to make him a beau, but not a man of business." The recommendations concerning the body and the health are summarized in "these few and easy observable rules: Plenty of air, exercise, and sleep; plain diet; no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic; not too warm or strait clothing, especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to cold water and exposed to wet."

Locke considered dancing, music, fencing, "riding the great horse," and wrestling to be mere accomplishments, and tolerated them only because custom made them necessary parts of the breeding of gentle

men.

As to diversion, he offers the following hint:

The weakness of our constitutions, both of mind and body, requires that we should be often unbent; and he that will make a good use of any part of his life must allow a portion of it to recreation. At least this must not be denied to young people, unless whilst you with too much haste make them old you have the displeasure to set them in their graves or a second childhood sooner than you would wish.

Perhaps, as I have above said, it would be none of the least secrets of education to make the exercises of the body and mind the recreation one to another. I doubt not but that something might be done in it by a prudent man that would well consider the temper and inclination of his pupil. For he that is wearied either with study or dancing does not desire presently to go to sleep but to do something else which may divert and delight him.

After Locke the number of champions of physical exercise increased perceptibly, though their efforts were confined largely to the writing of books, most of which were devoted to medical gymnastics.