classical and "modern" (Real) schools. The curriculum comprises nine years and the boys (girls are not admitted to these schools) must be 9 years of age before entering. The plan of instruction is the same for the first three years; during that period German is the only foreign language taught. Then a bifurcation takes place, some pursuing the Latin (classical) course, others the English (modern) course. "Still, in all subjects other than Latin and English, instruction is as a rule the same for the two following years. French is taken up in the fifth year, both in the modern and the classical side." The last four years, the sixth to the ninth, the pupils of the modern and classical lines are separated, and at the same period-the sixth year-a new division takes place on the classical side. Greek is taken up by some, English by others—that is, there is "a full classical section and a half classical section." At the close of the secondary course the maturity, or graduation, examination takes place; the diploma attained, the student may then pass to the university, to military or forestry schools, or to lowgrade positions in the Government service. This maturity examination is quite a severe one, and the boys of the modern (Real) side, not having studied Latin, must give special evidence "of greater knowledge in mathematics, natural sciences, and modern languages than the boys on the classical side."

The question has been broached in Sweden of bringing the elementary and secondary schools into closer connection by eliminating one or more of the lower classes of the secondary schools, and making the elementary directly preparatory to the secondary school, thus, in a measure, forming a common school for all classes. Further reforms have been suggested which will take Latin and Greek out of the secondary schools to a great extent, and will place them in the university as a special department. Secondary education for girls was formerly almost entirely of a private character, or was the result of aid from municipal authorities, but the present progressive movements have brought about State subsidies for such schools.

As an outcome of the discussions concerning the great influx of students at the universities, and the need of more practical instruction of a secondary character for both boys and girls, the Palmgren Practical Work School was founded in 1876. While Slöjd is a main feature of its curriculum, the aim of the school is to train both sexes in those studies which lead to practical life, and there is no special limit as to the elementary or secondary character of the school, nor as to the age of applicants for admission. The aesthetic side is not neglected, for the schoolrooms are ornamented with art works of various kinds, and even the desks and chairs have the style of the old Norse, the Gothic, or the German Renaissance period. The success of the school has been noticeable, and, in 1888, the maturity examination was successfully passed by two boys and two girls. The school has two divisions, the one for a cultivation of manual dexter and the other for studies tend

ing towards intellectual progress; in its preparatory classes children from 6 to 9 years of age having no previous schooling are admitted. After passing through three classes they are fitted for the lowest classes of the Real schools or the gymnasia. The next division is that of a Real gymnasium with nine classes, then there is a seminary or normal school for the training of teachers of Slöjd.

The course is most comprehensive in character, giving, as it does, a liberal education and a most thorough training in Slöjd. Slöjd is obligatory upon all, and it includes feminine Slöjd as well as that in which boys particularly are trained. Pupils who do not attend the school are admitted to Slöjd instruction at a moderate fee. The three-months courses for the training of Slöjd teachers include also lessons in drawing and the pedagogics of Slöjd1.

The number of secondary schools is 70, of which only about 30 fulfill the requirements as preparatory schools to the universities. The instruction is nearly free, amounting to only about $8 or $10 for each pupil. In 1891 there were 14,474 students, and in the same year 650 students had passed the required examination for admittance to the universities, among them 15 women. The expenditures for secondary education amount to nearly $1,000,000 a year.

Students who wish to pursue a mercantile career attend the commercial schools (or colleges) of Stockholm and Göteborg, which have two-year courses and an average of more than 100 pupils, and which receive governmental subsidies as well as private donations. The stu dents pay tuition fees also. Then there are private commercial schools which give excellent instruction.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.

The presentation of the public educational system of Sweden would be incomplete without mention of the university, which is thus aptly described by Dr. Lagerstedt:

The public universities of Sweden are two, the University of Upsala and the University of Lund. Besides these there is a faculty of medicine, or a “medical college," in Stockholm. There are two other universities of Sweden, those of Stockholm and Göteborg. They are only a few years old, and were founded and are maintained wholly by private means without aid from the state. But they will both, in all probability, soon be brought into the system of education. It is proper, therefore, that they be mentioned in this place.

Each of the old state universities, the universities of Upsala and Lund, comprises four faculties or departments, the faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. The faculty or department of philosophy is divided into two sections, one for literature, history, philosophy, philology, and allied branches of knowledge; the other for mathematics and the natural and physical sciences.

The original and chief object of a university is the promotion of knowledge. The teachers have to disclose and elucidate to the students the treasures of literature and the results of scientific investigation, as well as to direct the students' own study. It is also expected of the professors that they shall themselves contribute to the advancement of human knowledge by observation and research. The proficiency of

1See Palmgrenska Samskolan i Stockholm.

students in Swedish universities is, as clsewhere, ascertained by examinations, which are of a twofold character.

The universities of Europe, generally, are expected to fill certain requirements demanded by the state. The state requires from its officials and from private citizens proposing to enter certain important vocations-that of medicine, for instance—that they give evidence of possessing the knowledge and skill necessary to their special calling. Now, in some cases, the university teaching and the ordinary examinations have been considered as serving this additional public end. In other cases the universities have had to undertake the organization of courses of instruction required by the state for the purpose just mentioned, and the testing of proficiency therein by special examinations-civic or state examinations, as they may be called. This part of university work naturally has a less scientific character, it is more elementary, and the object of the examination is to ascertain that the students have attained certain fixed standards of knowledge rather than to ascertain the results of deep scientific study. The practical importance of this part of the universities' work may sometimes offer temptations subordinate to their strictly scientific work, and make the higher examinations, the university examinations proper, by technicalities or regulation, too much like the civic or state examinations. The present regulations and arrangements of the Swedish universities scem to avoid this danger.

The faculties of theology and of law have both kinds of examinations, scientific and civic. Most of the students of theology and of law pass the civic examinations only, and thus become entitled to enter the service of the state as judges or other officials of that of the state church as ecclesiastics. Some, however, of the law and theological students take the university examinations proper, success in which, in some cases, gives them a preference in the matter of appointments over those of their colleagues who have been content to pass the civic examinations only.

The department of medicine offers examinations of the higher grade only. As may be inferred from this, the studies of the Swedish medical students are very thorough. Generally it takes students eight to ten years of hard work after matriculation to complete their university studies. There are two examinations in the faculty of medicine. The first is merely preparatory to the second.

The fourth of the faculties or departments is that of philosophy. Like the faculty of medicine, this faculty has no civic examinations. Neglecting some minor preparatory examinations that are passed by students wishing to enter the other departments, there are two examinations in the faculty of philosophy, namely, the examination for the rank of candidate of philosophy and that for "licentiate of philosophy." To become a candidate of philosophy the aspirant must be examined in five different subjects, at least. These subjects may be chosen quite freely among the branches of knowledge that belong to both sections of the department of philosophy. The candidate must give proof of complete mastery of one of these subjects, or, if he so prefer, of excellent attainments in two.

If a candidate of philosophy wishes to obtain the rank of licentiate, he must be examined in at least two branches of knowledge, quite freely chosen from the curriculum of the department, and he must give evidence that he has acquired a deeper and scientific knowledge of them. A student is, however, not obliged to be a candidate of philosophy before he attempts to obtain the licentiate's degree, but may proceed immediately to the latter degree, though in this case he has to give evidence of his scientific study of at least three sciences or branches of knowledge.

A licentiate of philosophy wishing to become a doctor of philosophy, in lieu of further examination, has to publish a scientific treatise, based on his own independent researches, and to defend this treatise publicly. If the thesis and the defense of it are considered to be satisfactory, the licentiate is admitted to the degree of doctor of philosophy.

Each of the two university examinations may be considered to demand, as a rule, three or four years of study in preparation.

There are two points to which attention is especially directed. The first is the

absolutely unlimited choice of studies open to the students within the limits of the department. It is quite lately that the examinations now in question have been so arranged as to permit such choice. Formerly some subjects were optional, others remaining compulsory, and there were rather intricate regulations with regard to the combination of subjects; some might be combined, others not. The allowing of this unlimited choice of subjects is considered in Sweden to be a decidedly progressive step, and one that will prove of great use in advancing deep and true scientific study.

The other point is the regulation permitting students who have passed the entrance examination to the university without Latin to be nevertheless admitted to the examinations for candidates and licentiates of philosophy, provided that the subjects chosen for examination are chiefly mathematics and natural sciences. This is quite different from the plan at the German universities. But Latin is still required in Sweden of all who wish to pass other university examinations.

Most of the students who pass the examinations for candidate or licentiate of philosophy afterwards become teachers in the secondary schools. There are two classes of such teachers-a higher and a lower one. The former class chiefly instructs the senior students in the secondary schools; the latter teach the lower classes. The teachers of the higher order must be licentiates or doctors of philosophy; those of the lower class at least candidates.

It is required, moreover, of both that they so pass their examinations that a certain number of the school subjects, four or five, shall have been included, in accordance with special regulations, which need not now be specified.

The two younger universities of Sweden, those of Stockholm and Göteborg, will probably in a short time be allowed to hold examinations of the same kind as the old state universities, and students passing such examinations will have the same rights as if they had passed those of the old universities. No applicants but those who have passed the maturity examination will be admitted to these university examinations, just as is now the case in the other and older universities. There will, however, be an important difference between the old state universities and these new independent ones. While the former admit no other students than such as have passed the examination of maturity, the latter will also admit other students, such as are called in America special students. These are only required to give some proof, generally by a special examination, that they are capable of receiving the instruction in the subject or in those subjects which they propose to follow. After having completed such a special study at the university, the student, if he wishes, is examined therein, and, if successful, receives a certificate indicating the result of his work. To this kind of examination, as a matter of course, every student of the universities may be admitted.

It may be seen, then, that it is the aim of the young universities to compete with the old ones as centers of higher scientific teaching, and, at the same time, to make their instruction and resources accessible to wider circles of students.

Women have been admitted to the Swedish universities for about twenty years. The number of women students, however, has been, and still is, comparatively small, and only a very few, hardly ten, have left the universities after having passed a complete university course.

The number of students at Upsala may be estimated at from 1,800 to 2,000; at Lund from 900 to 1,000; at Stockholm, 200; in Göteborg, 100.

The university at Göteborg has, at present, a department for the humanities. The one at Stockholm also has the humanities, departments of mathematics and natural sciences, and will soon start a department of law.

The Pharmaceutic Institute in Stockholm imparts the knowledge requisite for practicing pharmacy. Its students average about 70. In order to practice dentistry the so-called student's examination has to be passed, also two special examinations in the presence of examiners appointed by the Royal Medical Board. The course is about three years. There are dental colleges in Stockholm and Göteborg.

TECHNICAL SCHOOLS.

In Sweden the interests of technical education are promoted by means of many colleges of greater or less importance, as is stated by Herr Rector V. Adler in the "Swedish Catalogue, II, Statistics, by Dr. S. A. Löfström, World's Columbian Exposition, at Chicago, in 1893."

The Technical High School stands foremost in this work, and the noted Technical School of Stockholm holds a place of its own. For the training of engineers, possessing, however, fewer resources than the high school, are Chalmer's Technical Institute in Göteborg and the four state clementary technical schools in Malmö, Norrköping, Örebro, and Borås. To these intermediate schools must be added the Technical Professional School at Eskilstuna, and the 29 lower technical professional schools, which are supported by the state. There are, besides, the Slöjd Society's School in Göteborg and a newly-established school in Luleå, which, to date, have worked without Government support.

The Technical High School at Stockholm, which is the principal polytechnic institute in Sweden, has for its object the scientific training of young students who intend to devote themselves to some technical occupation.

"The subjects of instruction at this high school are: Mathematics, geodesy, topography, descriptive geometry, elementary mechanics, higher theoretical mechanics, descriptive mechanics, the theory and practice of machine construction, mining mechanics, the study of steamship construction, mechanical technology, general and applied physics, general and analytical chemistry, chemical technology, laboratory work, mining chemistry, general and special metallurgy (of iron, etc.), metallurgic laboratory work, mineralogy and geology, mining, building, building estimates, architecture, history of architecture, construction of roads and waterways, linear drawing, free-hand drawing, ornament modeling, political economy, and factory work."

The high school includes the following five technical departments, viz.: (I) Machine construction and mechanical technology, with from three to four years' course; (II) Technical chemistry, with a three years' course; (III) Metallurgy, in three subdivisions, the first for mining mechanics, with a four years' course, the second for metallurgy and smelting, the third for mining; the two latter divisions being courses of either three or four years; (IV) Architecture with a course of four years; (V) Road and waterway construction, with equal courses of four years' duration. The course of instruction during the first year is the same for all the ordinary pupils at the school; then special studies are pursued.

The students at the high school are: (1) Ordinary, who attend until they have acquired the amount of skill requisite to the obtaining of a full certificate after a complete course; (2) Special, who, when they show themselves possessed of the skill required by the directors, enjoy instruction in a lesser number of subjects, and may obtain certificates of their attainments in those branches; and (3) extra pupils who need not give any previous proof of their ability by passing an entrance examination, and who may enjoy the instruction, but are not entitled to receive any testimonial from the college as to their attainments. For ordinary students the instruction is free; special and extra pupils pay a fee fixed by the directors and varying between 10 kr. and 50 kr. ($2.68-$13.40) per term. The management of the high school is under the direction of a governing body appointed by the King. The high school has, moreover, a library of about 23,000 volumes, and above 500 manuscript reports of technical matters furnished by traveling students, and it owns in addition a valuable collection of models, instruments, etc., used at lectures on the various branches of study.

The Technical School in Stockholm has for its aim to give a clear and practical training in the knowledge requisite for an intelligent and accurate execution of