founded and maintained by August Abrahamson, near Göteborg. Many of the teachers of this branch in the public schools are graduates therefrom, and hence have introduced this form of manual work, although no particular system is enforced in the schools. Instruction at Nääs is gratis. It consists of lectures and discussions concerning the methods, system, and history of educational Slöjd, and also the making of a series of models in wood. There are now four courses a year at this Seminary, of six weeks' duration each, attended by 270 students. From 1875 to 1892 there were 1,808 teachers on the rolls. The aim of educational Slöjd is not so much to impart technical skill as to develop certain powers, physical, moral, and mental; to increase the pupil's love for work, his love for independence, and to strengthen his physical powers; to teach precision, cleanliness, order, and attention, and to give him a knowledge of the value of manual labor. The Swedish system has limited itself in a measure to Slöjd-carpentry, although in some of the Swedish public schools instruction is given in paper and metal-Slöjd, wood-turning and wood-carving; it is intended for children between ten and fourteen years of age. Under the Slöjd system small objects or models are made, and the so-called "form-work" offers opportunity for the development of the eye, for it becomes in reality a modeling in wood, which like that in clay or wax is a complement to free-hand drawing. In Slöjd-training the knife, the ax, the spoke-shave, and the shave-iron are used, the knife being especially characteristic of Slöjd. The positions and movements required in Slöjd exercises unite it in a measure with gymnastics, so that specialists in both lines have aided each other materially in producing a series of exercises which insure a harmonious development of the body. The pupil is made to use the tools in Slöjd alternately with the right and left hand, so that the muscles of both sides of the body are equally exercised. Thoroughness is one of the requisites of Slöjd-training, and the pupil is expected to work not only with exactness but with independence of reflection and execution. He is taught to think about what he is doing, and the teacher is not allowed to put his hands to the work, so that habits of self-reliance are also inculcated.

The Nääs series of exercises are 88 in number, and the intention is to have the models combine practical utility and æsthetic form. The pupil is taught to make objects which are useful at home, and as the natural development of the individual is the chief aim, all artificial competition is to be assiduously avoided. The methods employed in teaching Slöjd according to the Nääs system have made this phase of "teaching" in the primary schools a most attractive one, and the same system has already been introduced in three or more normal schools. Girls are not neglected in this kind of training, although the skilled handiwork takes a different form. The aim of the instruction in feminine Slöjd (as described by Miss Hulda Lundin, who is the inspectress of feminine slöjd in the Stockholm schools, and who has made

this almost a life work) is, as stated in the prospectus, to exercise hand and eye, to quicken the power of thought, to strengthen love of order, to develop independence, to inspire respect for carefully and intelligently executed work, and at the same time to prepare girls for the execution of their domestic duties. Miss Lundin states that the desired results may be reached by practical demonstration of the subject, by progressive order with regard to the exercises, and class instruction. The practical demonstration is accomplished by means of a sewing-frame; in knitting, by means of large wooden needles and colored balls of yarn; by blackboard drawings. Progress from the simple to the complex may be best observed by a study of the work in the class divisions in the public schools of Stockholm with girls from 7 to 14 years of age. There are seven standards: in the first, two hours a week instruction in needle-work is given; in the second, third, and fourth standards, four hours a week; in the fifth and sixth standards, five hours; in the seventh, six hours a week. Standard I covers plain knitting; II, plain knitting, and practice in different kinds of stitches, such as runningstitching, hemming, and overcasting; III, simple darning on canvas, making aprons; IV, plain and purl knitting, plain sewing; V, knitting stockings, drawing patterns, and cutting out undergarments; VI, patching on colored material, stocking darning, making button holes, and making thread buttons, sewing on tapes, hooks, and eyes; drawing patterns and cutting out undergarments; VII, fine darning and marking, drawing dress patterns, cutting out of articles mentioned under IIIV, cutting and making dresses. The models are frequently drawn upon the blackboard by the teacher in charge of feminine Slöjd; the girls receive the materials necessary for the work, and they copy the designs furnished, the teacher simply overseeing them to see that the ideas are properly carried out. In the lowest classes the ordinary teacher carries out the so-called Lundin method, but in the higher grade primaries there are special teachers employed for the teaching of feminine skilled handiwork. There are 14 courses or standards before completion of this class of work, and a series of models is found in each school, in addition to those in charge of the inspectress of feminine Slöjd. The pupils receive the work done in standards I to VI, II to XIII free of charge, and in the other standards only have to pay for the thread, material furnished, etc.

THE SCHOOLS OF STOCKHOLM.'

The school laws are the same for all parts of Sweden and yet, as heretofore stated, there are city schools which are governed somewhat differently from those of the country at large. For this reason the organization of the Stockholm schools is here presented. The number of districts or parishes in Stockholm is eight, each parish has its school, and its school council appointed by the inhabitants. In the

1 Revue Pédagogique, October, 1893.

rural districts the conformation of the country requires, in general, the establishment of various schools; in the city a parish may have its one educational center with all grades under one roof, or whenever there are as many as 4,000 pupils in a single parish a subdivision is made by which the preparatory divisions, or småskolor, were in separate buildings regarded as annexes to the central school. A central school board or higher council, composed of a dozen members, including one member from each of the eight subsidiary councils, a member appointed by the administrative authorities, a physician, and a member of the consistory, has the general control of school affairs. The school board of each parish is presided over by a clergyman; its duties are to keep the school buildings up to the proper standard, to watch over the school attendance, and to suggest to the central board what reforms are needed. All expenditures are decided by the central board; the parish board proposes the candidates for teachers, the central board appoints them; the central board also appoints an inspector who submits to it the most important questions appertaining to elementary education. It is noticeable that the central board has the controlling voice in Stockholm school affairs, while the parish boards are subordinate to it.

The school year is of forty-one weeks, from August 15 to December 20 and from January 8 to June 15. The school day is from 8 to 1 o'clock, or a five hours' period. The youngest children have four hours. In all there are sixty minutes' recreation, three times amounting to ten minutes each, with a thirty minutes' period for lunch. Each class has its own instructor or instructress who teaches the different branches and supervises the discipline of that class. The highest classes, however, have special teachers for singing, drawing, and feminine Slöjd. Mr. Meijerberg brought women teachers into the corps of instructors, an innovation which has had noticeable results, as far as the training of the youngest pupils is concerned, and to-day there are five women teachers to one man in the teaching corps of Stockholm schools. In the lower classes especially the woman teacher is preeminent, as well as in the classes for girls. If she has shown herself to be a good disciplinarian there is no hesitancy in placing her in charge of the classes for boys of 10 to 12 years of age. In leaving the schoolroom for recreation the children march two by two, and a monitor chosen from the ranks, keeps order; in leaving for home after school hours the children are formed into squads, according to the district, a corporal has the squad in charge and each boy drops out near his home. The course of study differs only in extent from that given for the same grade of school throughout Sweden. In history, for instance, class three has ancient history, class four, the history of Sweden from 1060 to 1611; class five, from 1611 to 1818; class six, from 1818 to the present with a repetition of ancient history and that of the Middle Ages; class seven, repetition of history since the Reformation, also universal history.

Slöjd instruction has already been touched upon under that heading. The schools of Stockholm have 92 men and 431 women as regular teachers, all of whom have normal school diplomas, and each one of whom gives thirty hours' instruction a week. At the head of each school is a director who gives from eight to a dozen hours instruction a week. Special teachers number 14 (7 men and 7 women) for singing and drawing, and 16 teachers for feminine Slöjd. The salaries are graduated as follows:

The director (or principal) receives in addition to his salary a supplementary amount which varies according to the number of pupils in school, from 500 to 1,300 crowns ($134 to $348).

The number of pupils in Stockholm schools is about 20,000 (20,312 in 1892); in 1862 there were only 2,500. In 1890 the proportions of absentees from various causes were: Sickness, 4.9 per cent; no causes assigned, 2 per cent; lack of shoes or garments, 0.7 per cent; authorized absence, 3 per cent. This last enumeration comprises the children who are required to be at home to care for younger children, or who, during the warm season are sent into the country for their health. In 1890 there were 1,800 pupils in night schools, their services being required during the day by their parents.

The authorities attend to the school attendance, requiring the owners or landlords of houses to furnish the police with information (presented on January 1 of each year) regarding the age, profession, or trade of their tenants. The police registers have consequently detailed knowledge of the people. The principal of each elementary school obtains from this source the number of persons of school age in his district, and information being also furnished as to the attendance at private schools, the necessary measures are taken for school attendance.

NOTE.—The totals do not always agree with the amounts given, but it is impossible to know wherein the variance lies.

That is, the sum of $320,392 was spent for the Stockholm schools, the Government contributing $58,156 towards that amount.

The new school buildings are most luxuriously arranged; particularly is this said to be the case with the Frederic Adolphus and the Catharine schools, which resemble museums in their inner decorations. Each pupil has a separate desk, and neatness is observable everywhere, not the slightest ink spot being visible to the casual observer. The buildings are several stories high, all class rooms open upon the same broad corridor, the windows being at the opposite sides. Bath rooms are so arranged that more than 4,500 pupils can be bathed every two days, each pupil receiving a douche and a warm-air bath. In all the parishes the poorest school children receive free dinner. In the Catharine parish 200 boys dine at school on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and 200 girls the intermediate days. The extremely impoverished receive also a glass of warm milk and a bit of bread. Cooking schools or classes are connected with some of the schools; in these regular instruction is given in simple diet.

Vacation colonies (due to Mr. Meijerberg's initiative), comprising each from 20 to 30 pupils, and in charge of a society with the princess royal as president, are sent into rural districts, near the sea if possible, during the vacation period, between June 15 and August 15. Each group has an instructress in charge, or the family of an instructor. There are daily occupations for both boys and girls; the district physician looks after the health of the children. Stockholm districts support 44 of these rural homes, and in 1890 there were 498 children sent out. The expenditures were $4,288, not including gifts.

SECONDARY EDUCATION.

1

The secondary schools "do not form a direct continuation of the pri mary schools as in the United States," although they are preparatory to university education. These schools are all complete in their organization, although they are usually considered to be of two kinds, the higher or complete schools with nine classes, and the lower or incomplete schools with two, three, or five classes. Yet "the teaching in these classes agrees precisely with that of the corresponding classes of the complete secondary schools." The secondary schools consist of the

Information obtained from a thesis of Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt, Ph. D., of Stockholm, presented at the International Congress of Education in Chicago in 1893.