CHAPTER XII.

EDUCATION IN SWEDEN.1

GENERAL VIEW OF THE SYSTEM.

The report of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1888-89 contained a statement of the system of education in Sweden in extenso. The general features of the system are here reproduced, with additional information received since that date.

The early history of both elementary and secondary schools may be traced in Sweden to the Reformation period, although the most earnest effort to establish people's schools dates from 1640, when it was decreed that a school be established in each city. In 1649 a division into people's and higher schools was made, and in 1686 the Government was called upon to aid the peasantry through state subsidies for school purposes. The impossibility of supporting a sufficient number of stationary schools for the people was soon demonstrated, and till 1786 the ambulatory school was deemed the only means of bringing children. under the jurisdiction of a teacher, who himself was oftentimes hardly fitted for such a position.

The influence of the church over the school is a special feature in Swedish educational history and many of the secondary or "learned" schools, which date from the time of Gustavus Adolphus, were under control of the clergy, and by law of 1724, no one outside of the diocese could be employed as teacher. A distinct division into classical and nonclassical schools was made in 1820, but, as the result of prolonged discussions, a reuniting of "learned" schools and gymnasia was accomplished in 1845. The burgher school and the ancient trivium, or Real school, have, in one form or another, been in existence two hundred years; from 1807 the course of study in the trivium tended towards training for practical life; in 1849 the two classes of schools were united. In the year 1824 the Bell-Lancaster, or monitorial system was introduced, and the year 1842 was notable for an entire reorganization of the school system. As it now stands the system embraces the ambulatory school, in sparsely settled districts; the preparatory divisions (småskolor) leading to the stationary schools of each district or parish; the normal schools of each chief town of the diocese; the higher elementary schools (since 1858) of villages and districts having more than 60 pupils; the secondary

Prepared by Miss Frances Graham French, specialist in the school systems of Northern and Eastern Europe.

schools, consisting of classical and modern schools (gymnasia and Real schools) which admit pupils from 9 years of age on; the universities, technical schools of higher and lower grade, agricultural, military, navigation, and medical schools. Illiteracy is almost unknown in Sweden, the very latest data showing that among the conscripts mustered there were only 0.27 per cent who were unable to read. Education in Sweden is essentially a concern of the state; the church, too, exercises supervision, for the local school boards are expected to submit their reports to the bishops and consistory; the inspectors are often clergymen and so are the chairmen of the district or parish councils. There are central boards of officials connected with the different ministries, and in connection with the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs there are two divisions--the one having charge of elementary schools, the other of secondary schools, and there are special inspectors who take charge of elementary schools in each diocese. Every school district has its school board-to which women are eligible for membership-for the superintendence of ele mentary schools, and there is also a council of teachers for secondary institutions, subject to the bishop or ephor of the diocese. Normal schools are directly supervised by the diocesan authorities, but all these grades of schools, through the system of inspection, are brought into direct communication with the central authorities, who in turn report to the King. Elementary schools are maintained by the parish, but since 1842 state subsidies are given for the payment of part of the teacher's salary and for the purchase of school material. The state maintains secondary and normal schools, and there are special subsidies for technical and Slöjd training. The cities of Stockholm, Göteborg, Malmö, Jönköping, and Norrköping have special laws governing their schools.

Swedish children are expected to be in school' from the seventh to the fourteenth year of age, and instruction is obligatory after the age of 9 years is reached, and it is also nominally free of charge. The average school year is thirty-six weeks.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

The stationary and ambulatory schools, with their preparatory divisions (fasta folkskolor, flyttande folkskolor, and småskolor), serve the purpose of giving an elementary education to children of school age in Sweden. As far as possible with the mountainous condition of the country there is intended to be a four-class central school of this grade,

1According to law of 1881, which is still in force regarding the employment of minors at factory work, manual labor, and other trades, children of 12 years of age are permitted in craft and factory labor if they have acquired the lowest standard of instruction of the people's school. The period of labor for children to 14 years of age is six hours; for children from 14 to 18 years ten hours a day; night work for children is prohibited. The observance of the law is controlled by the communal authorities.

with a general grouping of smaller schools around. When this plan can not be carried out the ambulatory school fills its purpose, and lower grade schools or preparatory divisions give the first impetus to the child's education. Where six-class schools are found the lowest classes are usually under the instruction of a woman teacher, who may be considered to be more in sympathy with the little children of from 7 to 9 years of age.

For the young people of agricultural districts who have passed the school age, but who wish to obtain practical information which will be generally useful to them, there are the högre folkskolor, which in 1891 numbered 25, with 927 pupils-men 622, women 305. Institutions for giving elementary instruction to working men have sprung into exist ence within the last few years. Due at first to private initiative, they were found to be of so much value that the state has appointed higher grade teachers to take charge of the instruction.

In each school district the elementary grades are under the direct surveillance of the school board or council, presided over by the pastor of the parish. This board formulates regulations appertaining to instruction, discipline, days and hours of study. It also endeavors to organize a parish library suited to the needs of the schools and it attends to the rental or construction of suitable buildings for school purposes-each building to be well ventilated, surrounded by a garden in which horticulture and arboriculture may be taught. The board also has to make annual report to the diocesan authorities as to the status of education in the district.

In 1889 the number of children who were of school age was 764,909: boys, 388,539; girls, 376,370, that is, 16 per cent of the population; the number of pupils who were under instruction was 715,878; those who had already left school after examination, 23,847. Hence we obtain the number 739,725, or 96 per cent of school age who were receiving or had received instruction. In 1891 out of 777,610 children of school age there were but 26,574 not availing themselves of tuition, either on account of illness, physical defects, or other causes. Besides these there were 29,803 who had completed the required course in the schools, and were thus exempt from further tuition. Of the remaining 721,233 children 656,947 received instruction in the elementary grades, 16,532 in private schools (13,470 in either secondary or technical schools, hence are not really to be included under this head), and 34,284 in their own homes, but under control of school boards. A child can not be admitted into school without a certificate of vaccination unless he has had small pox; all children are to be vaccinated before they are 2 years of age. In the primary schools coeducation is usual, although in some of the higher classes in the large towns boys and girls are instructed separately.

THE TEACHER AND THE GENERAL PLAN OF TEACHING.

The following conditions are required of those who desire to obtain a position as instructor in primary schools: The candidate must be 20 years of age, of good standing morally and religiously, have a normal school diploma, and be selected for the position by the school board from the candidates decided upon by the consistory of the diocese. University study, graduation diplomas from the normal schools, and attendance at a practice course in the normals are required of those desiring to teach in higher grade schools. Regular teachers receive at least $160 a year ($188 after five years), with a small plot of land, lodging, fuel, fodder for a cow; this amount is increased in towns and cities to between $300 and $500, but in such case free lodging is not given, nor other material assistance. Pensions are accorded to all teachers, their widows and children.

There are 12 normal schools-7 for men and 5 for women—with a four years' course in each. The studies, which include among other branches, pedagogy and methods, gymnastics, horticulture, music and singing occupy thirty-four hours a week each in the first and second classes, thirty-three and twenty-six in the third and fourth classes. Six hours in the third and sixteen in the fourth class are devoted to practice teaching. In 1891 there were 470 men under instruction, 133 of whom had a diploma, and 361 women, of whom 145 had a diploma.

The Swedes have endeavored not to encumber the primary school program with too many studies, the main effort seeming to be to give instruction tending to prepare for a practical life. The school board arranges as to duration of studies in the district over which it has control. It is expected that there will be at least an eight months' school and that the school-day be from five to six hours in length. In the two preparatory classes the maximum is five hours a day; in the primary school proper it is six hours. After each lesson the pupils have ten to fifteen minutes recreation-that is, fifty minutes of work, ten or more of recreation; during one recess lunch is partaken of. This regularity is due to Mr. Meijerberg, former inspector of primary schools in Stockholm, who during his twenty-five years in that position made many improvements along pedagogical lines. In rural districts instruction is given five days of the week and Saturday is reserved for manual training or Slöjd in some form; in other localities from four to six hours a week are devoted to Slöjd.

In the early part of 1891 a bill was passed by Parliament by which a new subject, that of the effects of alcoholic drink on the human organism, was to be introduced in the schools.

Carl Jonas Meijerberg was born on October 8, 1816, in Brumflo-Jämtland. He was educated at Upsala; became a school inspector at Bohuslän in 1861, thence to Stockholm in 1863, where during his years an inspector he saw the schools increase from 59 to 480, teachers from 60 to 500, pupils from 2,500 to 16,000. Mr. Meijerberg was Swedish Commissioner to the Philadelphia Exhibition in 1876.

Sweden occupies an important position in a movement which, during the past twenty years, has made manual labor a factor in all national education, a movement directed against the old-fashioned one-sided system of mental overwork. The great interest in such movement manifested by many persons led to the introduction of Slöjd in the 'Swedish schools; definite steps were also taken in the early seventies to establish special schools for a similar purpose. At first individuals, provincial councils, and agricultural societies supported the work, but in 1877 Parliament voted $4,000 per annum for advancing Slöjd instruction, which amount was increased to $30,000 in 1891, in addition to that which was given by provincial councils, agricultural societies, and parish authorities. The schools receiving the benefit of governmental stipends increased as follows:

As many schools are not aided by governmental subsidies it is considered that the number reaches about 1,800 in all. Slöjd is only obligatory in a few schools, but is generally encouraged by inspectors of the public schools and by special examiners.

The "Swedish Slöjd system" is that form of Slöjd worked out at the Nääs Normal College, or Seminary, which is a private institution

1 Described by O. Salomon, director of the Slöjd Seminary at Nääs, in "Swedish Catalogue, II, Statistics prepared by Dr. Löfström for the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893."