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A word concerning the sources of these benefices may be welcome. We state that 1,341-40 per cent, valued at 134,745 marks ($32,339),= 30-5 per cent were derived from funds of the universities; 1,470=42.9 per cent, valued at 212,708 marks ($51,050)=48 per cent were derived from funds appropriated by municipal governments, corporations, etc., and 535-171 per cent, valued at 94,166 marks ($22,600)=21.5 per cent were derived from family endowments. Concerning the last mentioned item we may say that, owing to want of information, it may be very much too small. The Prussian minister of education paid in 1891-'92 the sum of 68,766 marks ($16,704) to needy students and beside that had at his disposal a fund of 100,000 marks ($24,000) for such students of German parentage who consented to accept government positions in the Polish provinces. The foregoing numbers are distributed among the faculties as follows:

Benefices in cash and free dinners were given in 1887-'88 per semester to students of the

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From the foregoing table we see that the students of theology are the most numerous of those receiving aid, partly because they are mostly in needy circumstances; partly, also, because for such students the largest benefit funds are in existence. The percentage of the philosophic faculty, which used to be much larger, has decreased in late years in consequence of the addition of students who did not formerly have the right of citizenship in the university, such as agriculturists, pharmacists, etc., and for whom very few endowments for scholarships and benefices exist. The amounts paid to individuals is generally very small. Almost one half the number of cash benefices amounted to 100 marks ($24) or less per semester. Only 38 amounted to 500-800 marks ($120-$192). Only 9 amounted to 800 marks and more.

The statistics of public instruction in the Kingdom of Bavaria, embracing the years 1869-1892, contain the statement that of every 100 students, 20 were completely exempt from the payment of lecture fees; 25 partially so; together, 45 per cent. Of the students of theology 59 per cent belong to that class; of the law students, 40 per cent; of the medical students, 39 per cent; of the students of philosophy, 50 per cent. Fifteen per cent of the students (330) received aid in cash (54,298 marks or $13,132)=164-5 marks ($39.38) per capita.

It is reasonable to suppose that in Bavaria as well as in Prussia the

number of needy students has diminished during the last twenty years, in consequence of which the cases of exemption from payment of lecture fees are now less numerous than at the beginning of the seventies.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR PART 2.

(1) Personal-Verzeichnisse, published by each university semi-annually. (2) Statistik des Unterrichts im Königreich Bayern. Th. 1. Munich, 1873. (3) Statistik der Universität Tübingen. Stuttgart, 1877. (4) J. Conrad, Das Universitäts studium in Deutschland während der letzten 50 Jahre. Jena, 1884. (5) J. Conrad, The German Universities for the last 50 Years. Translation by John Hutchison. Glasgow 1885. (6) Preussische Statistik, herausgegeben vom Königl. preuss. statist. Bureau in Berlin. Preussische Landesuniversitäten. Berlin, 1892. (7) Statistische Mittheilungen über das höhere Unterrichtswesen im Königreich Preussen. (Supplement to Centralblatt der gesammten Unterrichtsverwaltung. Berlin W. Hertz.)

APPENDIX.

The following table is added by the translator as a valuable summary of secondary school statistics, showing the number of boys in Germany who are predestined by their parents at an early age (10 or 11) to pursue higher studies. These students are all boys; for girls who aim at entering the higher seats of learning, no provision in form of prepara tory secondary schools is made as yet in Germany. Efforts are being made of late to establish gymnasia (or classical schools) for girls, and the government has the question under advisement.

Number of boys in schools leading up to universities, polytechnica, and other professional schools, in Germany, in 1890.

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Total..

21 universities of Germany have 28,000 students: 22 polytechnic, agricultural, forestry, veterinary, and mining schools have 8,853 students

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CHAPTER XI.

SCHOOLS FOR RECRUITING THE CIVIL SERVICE

IN

FRANCE, AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE CIVIL SERVICE REQUIREMENTS IN PRUSSIA.

BY W. F. WILLOUGHBY, A. B., AND W. W. WILLOUGHBY, PH. D.

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II.—The polytechnic and affiliated schools: (1) Polytechnic School (École Polytechnique); (2) Superior School of Mines (École Supérieure des Mines); (3) School of Bridges and Roads (École des Ponts et Chaussées); (4) Superior Professional School of Posts and Telegraphs (École Professionnelle Supérieure des Postes et Télégraphes); (5) School of Manufactures of the State (École des Manufactures de l'État); (6) School of Application of Powder and Saltpeter (École d'Application des Poudres et Salpêtres); (7) School of Hydrography (École d'Hydrographie).

III.-The national agricultural institute and affiliated schools: (1) National Agricultural Institute (Institut National Agronomique); (2) National Forestry School (École Nationale Forestière); (3) School for Horse Breeding (École des Haras).

IV. Other schools: (1) School of Archives (École des Chartes); (2) Colonial School (École Coloniale); (3) Special School of Modern Oriental Languages (École Spéciale des Langues Orientales Vivantes); Schools in connection with the national manufactories, at (1) Sèvres, porcelain; (2) Gobelin tapestry, Paris; (3) Mosaics, Beaurais.

V.-Efforts towards a school of administration.

VI.-Conclusion.

INTRODUCTION.

The subject of special schools, preparing young men for the service of the state in the various positions of the civil service, is of interest from a double point of view-that of education and that of an efficient personnel of Government employés. Of the two, the latter interest is probably the more important.

Of the number of movements looking towards the improvement of the general conditions of society under which all must live, the movement for better government is prominent. Good government can be said to be the result of two conditions-that of a good system and that of the capacity and honesty of those who administer it. The first of these can to some extent be absent. The latter is a sine qua non. Hon.

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James Bryce has shrewdly said that such is the capacity for government of the New Englanders that they can make a bad system of government give good results. But, however good the system of government may be, the results can not be good unless it is honestly and efficiently administered. Whatever efforts are made in other directions every effort should also be made to secure the best men for the most important and responsible positions in government administration.

It is difficult to see why the government service should not be considered as a profession to be as deliberately chosen as any other. There is no one institution in which the people are so vitally interested. Certainly every movement which will tend to raise the position of servant of the state to a more honorable standing and to attract to it the best men of the country is a step in the right direction.

The purpose of the present paper is to present a sketch of the efforts which have been made by France to secure an efficient personnel for the higher branches of government service through the establishment of special government schools preparing for particular services of the state.

France more than any other country affords us material for the study of the results of the policy of recruiting the civil service through the establishment of special government schools preparing for particular branches of the service. Two conditions in the character of the French life have contributed powerfully to this result-the great centralization and increase of governmental activities and the specialization in the system of public instruction. In America the average youth attends school and on the completion of his studies determines in what direction he will turn his energies. Fortuitous events determine, in a majority of cases, the occupation of each. In France quite the reverse is true. So difficult is the establishment of a position in business that the French boy must at the very earliest opportunity make a selection of the profession he wishes to follow and then direct all his energies toward attaining this goal. As a result the system of technical education has received a development unequaled by that of any other country of Europe, Switzerland possibly excepted, and to an extent which it would take years of growth for American and English technical schools to equal. There is not a trade, and one might almost say not a branch of a trade, which does not have special schools devoted to preparing students in the acquisition of the technical knowledge necessary for its efficient prosecution. What is true of private business is not less true of governmental activities. The technical branches of government administration have been considered as professions to be prepared for as for any other profession.

The second condition which has been mentioned, that of the great increase in governmental activities, has contributed no less to this result. One must have his residence for some time in France to realize the im

portant part which government plays in the life of the French people. Not only has there been during the present century a constant develop. ment of the duties usually performed by a central government, but the domain of private business has been entered, and numerous services have been added to the state. Political and social conditions bave led to the assumption of the telegraphic, telephonic, and, in part, the railway system of the country. Economic conditions have long caused the French Government to busy itself with such important interests as forestry and the cultivation of improved breeds of domestic animals. Financial and other considerations have led to the assumption by the Government of the manufacture or exploitation of salt, tobacco, matches, powder, saltpeter, special tapestry and porcelain products, etc. Enormous sums have been spent within recent years on public improve ments, roads, bridges, and canals, and these improvements are made much more directly by Government employés than is the case with us. All of this has not only required a great development of the civil service, but also the employment by the state of large numbers of men of whom a high degree of technical skill and ability is required. Such industries as forestry and the manufacture of products which are state monopolies can necessarily have no similar establishments from which to draw their employés, and a training by the state thus becomes almost a necessity.

Among a people where government plays such an important part as in France and where the government service necessarily absorbs a not inconsiderable part of the workers of the country, the whole school system must have in view to a greater or less extent the preparation. for this service. The greater number of positions, especially the subordinate ones, require little of what we call technical instruction, at least other than that which must be gained by actual experience in the positions in question. There are, however, a considerable and ever increas ing number of positions for the proper filling of which a previous special training is absolutely essential. For the recruitment of these two kinds of positions the Government of France has taken into consideration this difference. For the first the Government has instituted competitive examinations, which relate only to matters of secondary and in some cases only to primary education. In a certain number of services more severe examinations have been established for the employés occupying somewhat higher positions, as, for example, with the minister of the interior, the minister of finance, the prefecture of the Seine, etc. These examinations, as well as other tests established for admission to the service of inspection of the finances, imply a careful and to some extent special preparation. The preparation for these examinations is left to the general school system.

For the positions requiring a technical preparation the Government has established a system of purely Government schools, specially preparing for these services. It is to these schools that this paper relates.

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