1.28 per cent of the entire population. They are represented in elementary schools by 0.74 per cent, in the middle schools by 8.3 per cent, in the secondary schools by 9-7 per cent, in the universities by 8.9 per cent. Among the law students the percentages vary little from the general average; the philosophic faculty also shows small variations from the average. In the medical faculty the Protestants recede a little from their average, showing only 59.5 per cent; the Catholics rise to 21.7 per cent; the Jews exhibit the remarkably high percentage of 18.5 per cent, for over one-half of all the Jews studying in the universities are enrolled in the medical faculties.

TABLE VII.-Statistics of Prussian universities

RELIGION OF THE GERMAN STUDENTS.

[Winter semester 1887-'88- summer semester 1890 inclusive. Absolute numbers.]

11. PROFESSORS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES.

A distinguished Englishman, James Bryce, M.P., professor in Oxford (in his preface to The German Universities for the Last 50 Years, by Dr. J. Conrad, Glasgow, 1885), has said that the great capacity for work of the German universities is chiefly owing to the great number of professors, which allows an extensive division of labor, and gives the teachers a chance to restrict themselves to comparatively few lectures in order thereby to gain time for independent scientific work or private instruction to the students. These considerations make it appear necessary to observe the present number of professors, and to subject it to analysis and comparison.

Altogether there are in German universities 2,275 professors, to whom must be added 26 teachers of modern languages, and a number of teachers of agriculture, dentistry, etc., also teachers of drawing,

dancing, fencing, gymnastics, and riding, who are not of equal rank with the professors. During the last fifty years the number of professors has nearly doubled, but it has not increased in the same ratio in which the students increased, for the average number of students to a professor, which was 9.5 in 1840, and 8.9 in 1870, is now 12.2. Not one-half of all the professors, or 1,029, are regular salaried professors, 591 are extraordinary, and 655 private lecturers. The number of regular professors has increased least of all, namely, from 633 fifty years ago to 1,029. While in 1840 the regular professors had on an average 18 students each, they have now 27 each. The number of extraordinary and private professors has more than doubled, but on the whole the proportion between these two classes has not essentially changed.

Fifty years ago the number of regular professors amounted to 52 per cent of the total number, and that number was maintained until very recently, when in 1892 it sank to 45-2 per cent. The extraordinary professors gradually rose from 20-8 per cent to 25.9 per cent; the pri vate lecturers numbered in 1840, 26-9 per cent; in 1880, 24.9 per cent, while in 1892 the number rose to 28.9 per cent. The great number of 655 young professors, who, without receiving salary, devote themselves to teaching and scientific work, and from whom the regular professors are recruited, form, as is well known, the essential fountain for the continuous influx of new life into our university system, and also for the promotion of science, since they lay most stress upon writing on scientific subjects, through which alone they can hope to rise to higher positions. TABLE VIII.-Professors in German universities.

Ex

Ex.

Ex

Ex

Reg- tra- Pri- Reg. tra. Pri. Reg. tra- Pri. Reg. tra- Pri

ular. ordi- vate. ular. ordi- vate. ular. ordi- vate. ular. ordi- vate.

1840.

1850.

1860.

1870.

1880.

1892

1840.

1850.

1860.

1870.

1880.

1892..

TABLE VIII.-Number of students to 1 regular professor.

TABLE VIIIC.-Relative number of regular, extraordinary, and private professors.

More than one-half of all the professors are engaged at present in the philosophic faculty, namely 1,197; and in this faculty the greatest increase is noticeable, especially in late years. In 1840 we find 536, or 1 professor to every 5 students; at present 1 to every 6. The proportion of the three classes of professors in this faculty is about the same that we find in the sum total.

The smallest increase is found in the faculty of Protestant theology, where the number of professors has risen from 146 to 155 within fifty years; however, the number had fallen to 114 in 1860. In this faculty the regular professors constitute the greater percentage, namely, 66 per cent, against 19-3 per cent of extraordinary and 14 per cent of private professors. This circumstance has often proved annoying, so that it has been found necessary to call to chairs in universities ordained ministers who had distinguished themselves by scientific publications. In this faculty the number of students to 1 professor is 25; in 1880 it was 14; the number of students to 1 regular professor is now 37-6; twelve years ago it was 20-4.

The Catholic faculties have at present 63 professors, with an average of 21.8 students each. Since in this faculty private professors are exceptions, the number of regular professors, 78 per cent, is greater than in any other faculty. In 1880 the proportion was 80 per cent, with only 6 per cent extraordinary professors.

The law faculty has at present 222 professors, 1 for every 31 students. This is by far the greatest relative number of students noticed anywhere, and is owing to the enormous throng attracted to the study of law. In this faculty the percentage of extraordinary profes sors, 14 per cent, is below the average; also the number of private professors is smaller than the average, at present 20 per cent, while in 1880 it was 13 per cent.

The division of labor has taken place in the medical faculty more than in theology and law. The number of professors has increased to more than twice the number it had fifty years ago. However, we must consider the fact that the aspiration of practical physicians in large cities is to obtain a position in the university in order to gain the confidence of the public. Hence the number of private professors is larger than in any of the other faculties. It is at present 37 per cent of the whole number of the medical professors. Also the number of ex

traordinary professors is comparatively large, namely, 30 per cent, which may be owing partly to the cause mentioned before, partly also to the fact that more specialties have been developed in the study of medicine than there are regular chairs. Only few universities have regular chairs for aural diseases, dentistry, psychiatry, hygiene, children's diseases, etc. Therefore the number of regular professors is at present only 33 per cent, whereas it was 47 per cent fifty years ago. However much the number of professors has increased the number of students has increased much faster; while formerly the average number of students to a professor was 6 to 8, now it is 12, and while the regular professor had 12 to 19, now he has 41.

Naturally the number of professors in the different universities varies very much. Berlin has the most, namely, 341 professors, 3 language teachers, and 3 teachers of dentistry. The number of regular professors is 83, or less than one-fourth of the whole number, the number of extra

ordinary and honorary professors is 198, the number of private professors is 160, or nearly one-half of all the professors. It is easily seen that the metropolis, with its many scientific institutions and the great number of advanced students who form the chief audience for special lectures, attracts men of scientific aspirations more than the small towns. Besides, what we said concerning the medical profession holds good particularly here, where we find 15 regular, 30 extraordinary, and 66 private medical professors, a proportion that can not be duplicated by any other university. The philosophic faculty has the enormous number of 76 private professors (the theologic faculty only 4, the law faculty only 8), 51 extraordinary, and only 50 regular professors.

The other large universities fall considerably behind Berlin. Leipzig has 168 professors, Munich, 152. The difference is explained, in the first place, by the smaller number of private professors, Leipzig has 59, Munich, 64. In Munich the number of extraordinary professors falls behind that of Leipzig (29 as against 78). The smallest university, Rostock, has 44 professors; that is 31 regular, 8 extraordinary, and 5 private professors. Giessen has 58 professors, among whom there are 39 regular. Jena with a few more students is better supplied with professors, namely, with 82, many of whom are extraordinary and honorary professors (36). A similar proportion is found in beautiful Heidelberg, that has 45 regular, 44 extraordinary, and 20 private professors. Very much different from this proportion is that of Erlangen, which has 41 regular, 7 extraordinary, and 8 private professors.

From all this we see that in proportion to the students the smaller universities are better provided with professors than the larger ones, hence that they afford a more intimate personal intercourse between teachers and students, which is the chief advantage they offer. In these smaller universities, seminaries, practical exercises and other private instruction are frequently found; in them the students receive special inducements for scientific investigation, and the professor can impress his personality better upon his hearers than when he stands before a large assembly.

12. DEGREES GRANTED IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES.

The close of a university career is marked by state examinations prescribed by law for the various professions. We leave them out of consideration, since they do not interest us at this juncture, and turn to the examinations that are exclusively university affairs, that is, examinations for degrees. Degrees are granted only as an acknowledgment of purely scientific achievements; they secure no professional rights.

The requirements for degree examinations depend upon the constitutional provisions of each university, hence differ considerably in various institutions. The examination fees, also, vary greatly, and this is one reason why some universities are preferred by candidates, who need not