lowest grade of a gymnasium does not show many opportunities for displaying profound learning; nor, for that matter, does the highest grade of the school. The disadvantages also are seen in this fact, that teachers without having had a pedagogical preparation, and being suddenly placed in charge of a class, require considerable time before they can find their level and a suitable mode of intercourse with their pupils. (This has recently been obviated by the institution of seminaries for secondary teachers). On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that the old view, which saw a learned scholar in the teacher of a gymnasium, has had great advantages. Upon it rests the high estimate enjoyed by the profession of secondary teacher in Germany compared with that in other countries. This will not change in future. In the hierarchy of the state officers the teachers will never stand at the head; the only way in which they can maintain their position is by scientific exertions. This determines the character of our gymna sium-it still has something of the school for the learned, that directs the attention of the student toward scientific labor and research. If the faculty of such a school has only one really learned man, he will give the school its character. Thus we see cause and effect. The character of the secondary school requires learned men from the philosophic faculty and the entire university. They cultivate learned men because the teachers of gymnasia lay just claims to being learned men.

Doubtless the great abundance of scientifically prepared workers in all dominions of human exertion, of whom Germany is so justly proud, is partly owing to this. The surplus may at times be felt uncomfortably, but let us not forget that the remarkable working power of the German nation in all fields of scientific investigation, especially in philologie and historie research, is owing to this apparent surplus.

A Frenchman has recently expressed an opinion upon this point, the like of which a German would scarcely dare to express, or even entertain. Ferd. Lot says in his interesting little study (L'enseignement supérieur en France, 1892);

The scientific predominance hegemonie) of Germany in all domains of thought, without exception, is at present acknowledged by all nations. Its a contrmed fact that Germany alone pro luces more than all other parts of the world together; its superiority in science is similar to that of Englard in the commerce on the ocean. Perhaps it is even greater in comparison.

It is probable that this is to be taken with some allowance. But M. Lot is not mistaken when he says that the organization of the German miversities, their uniform constitution as corporations their Verty in teaching and learning, and above all, the tendency of their instruction toward investigation, are the elief causes of their supnetty. This is particularly true with regard to the philosophie faculties. In them the poca)lar character of the German univers tes, as rareres & sekutife investiganten and research, is prominently apname to them draw the other sealt esmilesale

to rob the philosophic faculties of this character would endanger the German universities, and the position of Germany in the scientific world.

Finally, let us not forget, that all this exists and acts in intimate connection with historic life. The vital air of the German universities is the historic spirit which surrounds them all, and each one in its individual form. There is scarcely one of them which has not in the life of our nation, or in some science, at one time, played an important rôle; not one that may not be proud of a few distinguished names of abiding importance in the history of science. He who sets foot on this ground feels the breath of historic life. And he who enters the lists becomes conscious that he accepts certain obligations. Not all feel it in the same degree, yet it may be said that in some way everyone feels it who enters a university as a teacher, and in some way almost everyone feels it who enters as a student. And every graduate takes some of that spirit with him into his practical profession. For the German clergyman, physician or judge does not wish to be merely a practitioner, but also a little of a learned man, at least in so far as is necessary to keep his interest awake for what is produced and accomplished in his profession by others. This is particularly true (I repeat it emphatically) of the German high-school teacher; he feels himself not only as an officer and teacher, but also as a scholar, and not a small portion of them succeed, though often under very restrictive and oppressive circumstances, in taking active part in scientific investigation in their professional dominion.

That is what heretofore lias given the German gymnasium its character; its pride has ever been to be a school for the learned, and to become, in its own manner and in a small compass, something similar to what a university is, not only a school for lessons and recitations, but an institution where. scientific work is performed, and where the students learn to work scientifically.

It is to be hoped that the tendencies which aim at an ever increasing extension of the system of examination and supervision, and which would convert the teachers into mere officers and the schools into knowledge shops, will not succeed in finding general favor. If our gymnasi should lose their character of schools for the learned, the universities would not be able to maintain their position in future.

II. THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES IN THEIR RELATION

CHURCH, AND SOCIETY.

ΤΟ STATE,

Their relation to the State.-That the universities should be state institutions, seems to us quite self-evident; but it was not always so, and it is not necessarily so. Scientific investigation and scientific instruction are not, in the nature of the case, a state enterprise. The first universities were private corporations, which, under the general protection of the state, conduct scientific investigation and instruction. Like other guilds, they governed themselves; they made their

object of instruction in philosophy, generally, to transmit and master the former school philosophy (Aristotle in Melanchthon's garb) by means of recitations. Philosophy had been studied essentially for the purpose of formal preparation for theology. The new philosophy planted itself firmly upon reason. Rational Thoughts is the chief title of Wolff's works in the German language. It did not intend to be ancilla theologia, but to seek the truth without prejudice; its basis was found in mathematics and natural sciences in their modern form. With equal emphasis it denied transcendental sanctions for ethics and law; it based itself solely upon the nature of man and society.

Wolff's philosophy was triumphaut in all Protestant universities in the course of the eighteenth century. The higher faculties also, especially theology and law, submitted to the influence of Rational Thoughts. Rationalism with its motto: "Nothing without satisfactory cause," became the maxim of the day.

With this we mark a decisive turn in science. The German unversities owe it, above all, to the acceptation of Wolff's philosophy that they were able to extricate themselves from the mire into which they had sunk during the seventeenth century, and that they could begin to assume the role of leaders in the intellectual life of our people. That the universities of our neighbors to the West have not been able to assimilate the modern philosophy, that they still occupy the standpoint of confessionalism, is really the ultimate cause why they exercise so much less influence upon the public life of their nations. The leading minds in France and England stand outside, in Germany inside, the universities.

Halle has the renown of being the first real modern university; the principle of libertas philosophandi, upon which the modern university rests, the principle of free investigation and untrammeled teaching (freie Forschung and freie Lehre) was first applied at Halle. They were clearly conscious of this in Halle. When the university, in 1711, celebrated the birthday of its founder, Prof. Gundling delivered an oration de libertate Fridericiana. This oration called the youngest university a stronghold of free thought. It concluded with the following words: "Veritas adhuc in medio posito est; qui potest, adscendat, qui audet, rapiat: et applaudemus." A bold word which characterized the great change in the intellectual world that had taken place. In the ancient university instruction always started from the presupposition that the truth was fixed and given, all that was to be done was to transmit it, and that the supervisory authority had the duty to see to it that no false teaching was transmitted. The modern university starts from the presupposition that the truth must be sought, and that it is the duty of instruction to enable the student to find it. The university simply realized the consequences of the situation created by the Reformation.

During the second half of the eighteenth century the University of

Halle found a rival in that of Göttingen, by which it was overtaken later on. At the close of the century Göttingen was considered an aristocratic university; counts and barons of the holy Roman Empire studied law and political science there under Profs. Schlözer and Pütter. Mosheim taught church history, theology, and pulpit eloquence; Michaelis taught oriental languages; Albrecht von Haller and his successor, Blumenbach, who were the best representatives of the science of man at that time, taught physical anthropology; the astronomer of worldwide fame, Tob. Mayer, the ingenuous physicist, Lichtenberg, and the elegant mathematician, Kästner, all these graced the institution. The newly awakened science of archæology found in Göttingen its first nursery; its philologists, J. M. Gesner and J. G. Heyne, to whom we owe the return of Greek to the university, found a new point of view for the study of classic authors. It is not dead erudition, nor Latin and Greek imitation that is needed, but formative, intimate intercourse with the authors of antiquity, the highest models of art and taste. This is the point of view of modern humanism, which has given a comprehensible human aim to the study of the ancient authors; its object has become the formation of taste for everything beautiful and genuine in literary representation. This modern humanism had a reciprocal action upon German poetry, that was just then beginning to flourish. This poetry, also, had its central seat in Göttingen; it suffices to mention Haller's poems, Gesner's German Society and the Hainbund.

If we compare the condition of the German universities at the close of the eighteenth century, as it had developed under the leadership of Halle and Göttingen, with the condition at the close of the seventeenth century, we may group the differences from the following points of view: (1) The place of scholastic philosophy had been taken by rationalistic philosophy, that accepted no decision by authorities.

(2) In place of the mechanical treatment of the dead languages and imitation had come the animated study of ancient sciences for purposes of general human culture.

(3) In organic connection with this was the fact that the German language had displaced Latin as the vehicle of instruction in universities.

(4) In instruction the principle of free research and unhindered teaching had been generally accepted.

(5) Natural consequences of this were: abandonment of disputations, dismissal of text-books, and on the other hand the establishment of seminaries. Gesner in Göttingen opened the first philologic seminary; F. A. Wolff in Halle followed his example.

The third epoch; the nineteenth century.―This epoch, like the preceding one, is opened with a few important new foundations. First of all came the University of Berlin (1809), established under memorable circumstances at the capital of the Prussian state for the purpose of proving "that Prussia will not give up the function it has

exercised, namely, to work in the direction of higher intellectual culture, and in that to seek its real power; it will begin anew. Prussia will not be isolated, but desires to remain, not merely in political matters but also in regard to culture and civilization, in close contact with entire Germany." Thus Schleiermacher interpreted (in his Occasional Thoughts Concerning Universities, p. 145, which we may call the intellectual charter of the institution) the fundamental idea of the Berlin University, its historical and national duty. When the venerable university of Frankfurt was transferred to Breslau it formed with that institution a great modern university (1811). After the Napoleonic wars a new university for the western provinces was established at Bonn (1818). The new state of Bavaria soon founded a large central university at Münich (1826), in which the ancient University of Ingolstadt was perpetuated. Lastly, the reopening or reestablishment of the University of Strasburg by the new German Empire (1872) completed the number of new foundations. Thus we see political changes reflected in the changes which the universities underwent.

Still another change of vital importance must be mentioned. The universities abandoned their former denominational character. When the most prominent German states, during the great revolution at the beginning of this century, abandoned the confessional unity which until then had been preserved, the universities responded in kind. They thereby returned to the universality of the ancient "studium generale," departing from their church basis and placing themselves upon the basis of general human culture. The ancient internationality also returned, although now it acts in a contrary direction. During the Middle Ages the German students went into foreign countries-to Paris and Italy; at present the foreigners come to Germany from the far West and the far East.

During this epoch the philosophic faculty has become the most prominent in influencing the ideas and the entire intellectual life of the people. Of well-known and distinguished names in science the philosophic faculty can justly claim more than the other three faculties together, and the number of professors in the philosophical faculty is, as a rule, greater in all universities.

At the beginning of this epoch philosophy stood in the foreground; Kant, the sage of Königsberg, whose philosophy had followed that of Wolff, gained supremacy in all German universities, the Catholic not excepted. He was followed by representatives of the speculative philosophy which for a time had its seat in Jena, where Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel taught in the beginning of the nineteenth century; then philosophy had its chief center at Berlin, where first Fichte, after him Hegel, taught. The latter has exercised great influence upon the entire Prussian system of education. This philosophy could be designated, during the twenties and thirties, as the Prussian state philosophy in a double sense of the word: It was the officially recognized philosophy