of the state, or at least that of the department of education; and, on the other hand, Hegel was the admired preacher of the idea of state. This condition lasted until Frederick William IV ascended the throne. He hated Hegel's rationalism and called the aged Schelling from Münich to Berlin in order to combat it. Beside Fichte and Hegel, Schleiermacher exercised a far-reaching influence through his theological as well as through his philosophical lectures. As a representative of another tendency in philosophy, the so-called positive philosophy, Herbart (in Göttingen and Königsberg) must be mentioned. His philosophy has gained great ascendancy since the decline of Hegel, especially in Austrian universities.

Among the intellectual powers of this time must be mentioned the modern humanistic philology, which deserves a second place. F. A. Wolf, who soon surpassed the aged Heyne, taught first in Halle, then in the Berlin University, which had been founded through the active participation of W. von Humboldt (a friend of Wolf); it had been destined from the very beginning for a central seat of archæological sciences, and has remained true to its destiny to the present day. Here Boeckh, Lachmann, and Haupt have taught. Trendelenburg, the restorer of Aristotelean philosophy, for many years an influential professor in Berlin, combined philosophical with philological study. In this branch the other new universities became conspicuous. In Bonn we find Niebuhr, Welcker, Brandis, Ritschl; in Munich, Friedrich Thiersch, Spengel, Halm; Leipzig maintained its former rank through Gottfried Hermann; Göttingen, through Otfried Müller.

It is worth recording that a number of new branches of philosophic investigation sprang up. Above all, must be mentioned the cultivation of Germanistic studies through the brothers Grimm, who lived and taught, first at Göttingen, then in Berlin. To that was added the study of Romanic philology, the founder of which was Diez, in Bonn. Also the study of Oriental languages and literatures took a fresh impetus. It suffices to mention the name of Bopp, the founder of comparative philology, and of Lepsius, the Egyptologist, both in Berlin, and of Fr. Rückert, the great philologist and poet, of whom Erlangen may boast. Of very pronounced importance is also the phenomenal development of historical investigation. Above all, L. Ranke, in Berlin, is to be mentioned as the most influential teacher, who was followed by a long line of notable pupils in the direction of research among original historical sources. It must not be left unnoticed that historical instruction in universities in this epoch has had an enormous influence upon the political thoughts of the nation. This influence has made itself felt particularly in favor of the unification of grand old Germany. It is not a mere accident that the most distinguished professors of history, Dahlmann, Waitz, Droysen, Häusser, played their rôles as members of the parliamentary bodies of 1848.

Lastly, we mention the impetus which investigation in the mathe

and natural sciences has received sines 1520. In Göttingen Jas the urmatinian Gauss and the pestis Weber tangit. In Giessen, Juang tot kood. vir comparater scant nas, a laboratory that pawyer to be of fat reaching consentences Pott for chemical instrue

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the prùmical application of screnee. În erlin Joh. Müller Jos cada 1 stikus for the moueri 8:00 0: physiologists, that made it oerpalu biongeal phenomena, bure! by means of the natBA kuzaa without the aid of metaphysica, pies. This school door koud an atomous importare in the develoment of medical science. Waa kour the brst half of our centum is distinguished by a long Van of pioneer in seeure and by works that la, the basis for future Benon, Bum Bacond half is characterized, not so muei by a growth in then try a growth in width. Thus patiently true in regard to "estigation-for the philologic

The fou great branches of scientific

but lope wees as well as for mathematics and the natural sciences. Bark yer tuercasing specialization in the freins of nestigation is a conyukure of this. This becomes of Tols, IL The institutions of the uniwody, when the number of chairs and seminaries for new branches ok tu madural woences has increased enormously. The number of #pular protests in the philosophe fact has increased to double and Triple of what it was at the beginning of the century. Berlin burger with Twelve such professors; it has now fy-three, and that dos and turlude extraordinary professors and Pr.vai-Docenten.

Han attempt. be made to sketch in a few Enes the history of the other Hure faculties of this epoch, that of the theologic faculty might la alated in this way: At the beginning of our epoch theology was in The most intimate relation to philosophy: rationalistic as well as speculative philosophy make that plainly obvious. A peculiar position is empled by Michleiermacher. He was himself a philosophic thinker, yet endrasored to ever religion from a combination with philosophy such me was found both in orthodox and in rationalistic theology. He did this by taking religion to be more a function of the emotions than of the intelleet, Hince the second third of the century passed two new currents, though opposing one another, seem to press philosophic theology into the background; first, the so-called positive current that depends upon church authority. In the Protestant Church this current is represented by Hengstenberg, in Berlin; in the Catholic, it is identical with the great movement of church restoration that led to the Vaticanum and now aims everywhere at strict adherence to authoritative harmony in theological and philosophical sciences. The second current is that of historic criticism, represented by Baur and the school of Tübingen within, and by D. Fr. Strauss outside of, the universities.

A similar plan might perhaps be observed in tracing the development of the faculty of law. At the beginning of the epoch under considsideration we had here also a preponderating influence of, first, Wolff's, then Kant's and Hegel's philosophy, which influence was obtain the

interpretation of the ancient natural law, and in the new philosophic construction of rights and state. Then the philosophical treatment of law was displaced, on the one hand, by the historical school (by Savigny, in Berlin); on the other, by the school of positivists (by Stahl, in Berlin). Lately a renewed tendency toward philosophic contemplation in both theology and law seems to manifest itself. In the school of A. Rietschl a leaning toward Kant's philosophy, and, strange to say, also toward Schleiermacher and his double position, are undeniable. Political science shows recently that it is influenced by economic-social ideas of history, and a historic-philosophic, or sociological view, becomes prominent (Ihering and L. Stein).

The medical faculty also was at the beginning of this epoch under the dominating influence of natural-philosophic theories. thirties this course is abandoned, and the tendency is now toward strictly scientific investigation of nature. During the present generation the medical faculty has experienced an astonishing development. Up to the close of the eighteenth century this faculty was, as far as numbers are concerned, an insignificant appendix of the theological and law faculties. At present the number of students and professors of medicine occupies the front rank in not a few universities. Also medical institutes of all kinds have been increased and extended; they claim a large share of the expenditures of a university. This increase is doubtless owing to the rapidly-increasing wealth of the population, but the wonderful progress medical science has made is not without influence upon the growth alluded to. Improved methods of investi gation, especially the application of the microscope, have caused a remarkable progress in recognizing causes and character of diseases, followed by important improvements in medical science, especially in surgery and the treatment of wounds.

As far as the outer form of the universities is concerned the ground plan has not been materially altered. The articulation into faculties has been retained, though at the beginning of this century all sorts of objections were uttered against this "institution of the Middle Ages." However, in a few universities the number of faculties has been increased by opening a new one for the other confession, or by dividing off from the philosophical a faculty for natural sciences and one for political science. The last traces of the ancient regulations of life and conduct have been lost. There are no "convicts" or dormitories, no professors who maintain boarding establishments, no obligatory courses of study, no tutors, and even the academic jurisdiction has vanished with the exception of a small remnant. The student now is a citizen of the state like all others. After he is enrolled, and has promised to the rector with word and hand-shake that he will obey the academic laws, no official person asks after him for a number of years. He is left entirely to his own counsel. It is evident that this dissolution of all school order is essentially a result of the gradual increase of the student's average age. ED 92

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The twentieth year is now generally accepted as the average age of the freshman; and for young men of 20 to 25 years the strict regulations of a school are obviously out of place.

With regard to the constitution of the teaching bodies, a change in the position of the philosophic faculty has taken place. While formerly its object was the general scientific preparation for professional study in the three higher faculties, now it has become a professional faculty itself, namely, for the preparation of teachers for secondary schools. Up to the present century the profession of teaching was an adjunct to the theological profession, so that theological candidates first spent some time in the service of education, either by accepting a position in a city high school or as tutor, before a position in the gift of the church was obtainable. At present the teachers' profession is an independent calling; a transition from that into the profession of the clergy has occurred rarely since the middle of the century. The introduction of a professional examination for teachers in 1810 (examen pro facultate docendi) designates for Prussia the outspoken separation of the two professions which had hitherto been united; its intention was the elevation, if not the creation, of a profession of high-school teachers with uniform scientific preparation and professional spirit. The inner cause of this fact is the separation of the spirit of the time from theology and theologie views, and a tendency to following the humanism of Goethe and Wolf.

In the matter and form of instruction the changes for which the way had been paved in the preceding epoch have been completed, to wit: The German university professor does not consider it his duty to transmit a fixed inventory of generally accepted truths, but the results of individual investigation and research. It is true the term tradere has been perpetuated in our programme of lectures, but even the youngest Privat Docent, and he perhaps most of all, would consider it an insult to his dignity if he were expected to take the word literally. This is quite in accord with the intention underlying instruction; it is intended to lead the student to independent thought and investigation. The act of learning expected of the student does not consist in accepting finished and polished facts, but in making him think and work scientifically.

This, above all, is true with regard to the philosophic faculty. Here investigation and suggestions for research are the predominating purpose. In the other faculties transmission and memorizing of knowl edge necessary for a technical outfit in the profession play a more important role. Physicians, judges, and clergymen are not, and do not intend to be, learned scholars; at least, this is not their most important object. The practical profession and its promotion are already emphasized in the universities. On the other hand, the philosophie faculty is really the learned faculty. This is true with regard to the professors as well as the students. Externally, the case becomes obvious in its

relation to the academies of sciences. Between the German academies and the philosophic faculties there exists a personal union in the widest acceptation of the term, while the other faculties are represented only occasionally. Another point makes obvious the importance alluded to: The nurseries of investigation, the "seminaries," have their origin in the philosophic faculty; dissertations emanate from them. The importance of the different degrees, also, is characteristic. Degrees are given in other faculties as well, but in the theological and law faculty seldom, and the medical degree is, although acquired uniformly, of a different character. The acquisition of a degree in the medical faculty is the result of social compulsion, but no one believes any more than the young M. D. does that he has proven himself a learned investigator by having written a dissertation. But, to a certain extent, that is the meaning of the degree of Doctor Philosophia.

The character of instruction in the philosophic faculty is in accord with this: it aims throughout at the cultivation of learned scholars. A professor of philology, history, mathematics, and physics proceeds as though he had before him in his lectures and exercises nothing but future learned scholars, future professors. He overlooks, on principle, the fact that in reality the great majority of his hearers are intended for a practical profession-the profession of teaching; or, rather, he does not overlook it, but is convinced that the teacher can not bring anything better into his profession than true erudition. Everything points toward it. The ancient view of the object of the gymnasium, even the traditional name of the institution, "preparatory school for the learned," points toward it. What did a teacher in the preparatory school for the learned (the term gymnasium arose at the beginning of this century) need in the way of professional preparation more than erudition? And, on the other hand, the recently begun and gradually extending specialization in the branches taught in the gymnasium seems to necessitate such a state of affairs. At present every gymnasium has its professor of ancient and modern philology, its mathematician and professor of natural science, its historian and theologian. This secondary school assumes the aspect of a university in embryo. Finally, the character of the examination for the degree, which requires only erudition, may be regarded as proof of the assertion. The problems submitted to the candidates are themes for scientific investigation and essays. Not unfrequently published essays originate in these examinations. Thus, the German teachers in a gymnasium are imbued with the spirit of learned men, at least for a time; that is, so long as the university sentiments are still strong in them, and the best of them even retain some of this spirit all through life.

Doubtless this condition has its disadvantages; they appear first in the fact that many teachers who have devoted themselves in universities to learned studies are somewhat disappointed when they enter school, as though they had lost their proper place in the world. The