of honor and ambition are repressed; hypocrisy, vaunting, or mendacity are systematically, though not in all cases consciously, taught.

Line d contains the number of children found to be badly educated. Their training violates, either with or without intention, ethical principles. In these groups we find souls brutalized by bad examples; contempt for others because of their poverty or some natural defect; intentional negation of the ideas of rights such as "mine and thine;" also absence of repression of sensuality.

Column I contains the numbers representing the offspring of wealthy or cultured parents, such as people living on the proceeds of invested funds, owners of manufactories, noblemen, high army officers, physicians, lawyers, teachers, and high civil officers.

Column II contains the number of children coming from the middle class of society, people who have a secure income, either a fixed salary or an established business, tradespeople and mechanics who own their shops; also persons in positions of responsibility in factories and offices, such as foremen, supervisors, and subaltern officers.

Column III contains the number of children of the laboring and serving class, people who earn wages as "hands" in factories and shops, and those who have no fixed or steady income, such as servants, coachmen, men and charwomen; also all who live directly or indirectly upon charity.

Minute inquiries and investigations with regard to the parents, have resulted as follows:

Ia. Father and mother are earnest, well educated, and observant at home. In II a, we find almost the same qualities in the parents, only that the pecuniary means are so much less abundant that the influence and authority of the parent is somewhat lessened. III a. The father works in the factory or at home, but is represented by a well inclined, strong mother, whose authority he reinforces.

Ib and IIb. The father is away from home during the day, the mother is weak both physically and educationally. III b. Father and mother have no comprehension of education.

Ic and II c. The father has no comprehension of education, no higher ideas, lives chiefly in the pursuit of pleasure; the mother is fond of dress, vain and without ethical strength. III c. The father and mother can only be driven to work by dire necessity or compulsion.

Id and II d. The parents are either purse-proud or proud of descent and position. III d. The father is as a rule, unknown. The mother represents a very low grade of intellectual development.

Observations among these various children in the schoolroom have shown the following characteristics and indications pointing towards their future career:

Ia. The children are earnest, aspiring from habit, sometimes precocious and conceited, have sympathy with others, study diligently, but avoid publicity. They are apt to become silent benefactors, travelers,

investigators, scientists, etc. II a. These children are also earnest and aspiring, but the latter from foresight; remain without intercourse with their schoolmates, have no pronounced inclinations, and a charac ter difficult to define. If they pursue higher studies they do so for bread, but are not prompted by the love of study. In public life they are mostly patient listeners; they are apt to be "yea, yea," and "nay, nay" persons. III a. Children enumerated in this column are also earnest and ambitious, but from necessity. They possess little experience, their intellectual horizon is limited, owing to poverty; they are bashful, but have very vivid imaginations; they are apt to drift into channels of study which can be pursued without a great outlay of money. Future idealists, explorers, collectors, and poets are likely to spring from this group.

I b. The children of this group are superficial, have much experience, but need incentives for study constantly. They generally follow the professions of their fathers; participate in public life; but never have any original ideas that open new ways. Sportsmen and the officers of social clubs and societies are recruited from this group.

II b. Incentives for learning and working in this group are spontane ous; hence self-consciousness is developed to a high degree. These children will be found to become pronounced characters, and furnish the leaders in public life.

III b. These children have some sense of honor which incites them to action; but they are easily approached, hence easily tempted and led astray. If they reach manhood without coming into conflict with the law, life's experiences improve them, and they become foremen, sectionleaders and the like.

I c. The girls are poor in intellect, love appearances and finery, are frivolous and void of good manners. The boys are distinguished by despotic and domineering conduct toward their schoolmates; they are apt to become sensual, void of sympathy for misfortune and poverty. They squander their inheritance or easily gained fortunes, and will be egotists or spendthrifts.

II c. In this group we meet with imitators, the so-called universal genius, the jack of all trades and master of none, people who are never satisfied with whatever profession they may choose. The profession of gamblers recruits itself from this class.

III c. These are children who simulate misery and claim sympathy, who have no self-confidence or self respect. A good teacher will often train them to become trustworthy workmen, and he will awaken selfrespect in them.

I d. Here we find the children who have contempt for all who rank below them. They do not think it necessary to study hard, knowing that their parents are wealthy. Sympathy for others is rarely found among them; hence egotists, usurers, and many who take advantage of others, are recruited from this group.

II d. These children feel no desire to learn or to work, attend school very irregularly, and when they do so, it is to amuse themselves. The boys are apt to become dandies, forgers, and defrauders.

III d. The children of this class are frequently withheld from school, or attend only by compulsion. The girls are morally bad and apt to sink low while the boys grow up to be candidates for the reform school and penitentiary.

For the work in school, some remarkable conclusions may be drawn from the foregoing tables.

The children of line a, columns I, II, and III, have home training. Those of I a have much recreation in the open air, but always under surveillance of parents, or other reliable persons. The summer is spent in the country. Physical development is cared for assiduously. Their health is normal, but sometimes they are a little delicate, and hence are kept from school in bad weather. Those of II a are also under supervision at all hours of the day, and spend much time in the open air. Their mode of life is natural, effeminacy is not found in this group; hence, the health of these children is always good and attendance at school regular. Those of III c find their only recreation and bodily exercise by walking to and from school. Everything is wanting to aid physical training. The parents fear bad influence and example among the schoolmates and watch over their children too anxiously. Often food is insufficient, and the children of this group furnish the greatest number of sickly pupils; hence, the greatest percentage of mortality.

The whole group I a, II a, III a seems destined to act as examples of good conduct for others, but owing to their exclusiveness, this benefi cent influence is lost as far as school is concerned. During lessons the children of the first three groups (I a, II a, III a), are quiet workers, slow in thinking, exact and prompt in doing their tasks, but without pronounced vivacity. They never give cause for complaint, are satis fying all reasonable demands, yet are not a source of real joy to a teacher, because everything such children do betokens outer compul sion. Spontaneity is rarely found among them.

The whole group, I b, II b, III b, prefers the streets and parks after school hours, and can not be kept at home. The children di tinguish themselves by great practical experience. They observe and compre hend quickly, are quick and skillful in motion, have a fresh complexion, cheerful looks, are attentive when interested, and quick in repartee, In their work they are frequently negligent in form, but generally ex rect in the solution of problems, mathematical and otherwise, Tuor vivacity and adroitness are a constant source of pleasure to the teacher : they enliven the whole school, and not u„frequently engage in me.f and playfulness, but rarely, if ever, in wicked acts, Inate interent, in what is taught makest le a nobey and pot. bit the, are early caled to order. Teaches remember en in eil den mitu m

The whole group Ie. He a. d IIIe tenge toward hope, NS,

communal expenses for school purposes in 1891 was as follows (average for Switzerland 10-8 francs, or $2.16):

1. Baselstadt..

2. Zürich

3. Thurgau

4. Berne.

Each canton has a number of supervisory officers, elected for a definite number of years and bearing various titles. Yet, great as the differences in titles, length of service, and sphere of authority may be, there is a uniform scheme followed, i. e., a cantonal supreme school authority, local supervisory, and intermediate supervisory authorities. In Appenzell i. Rh. and Zug the functions of both cantonal and middle authorities are in the same hands.

Local supervision of primary and grammar schools is exercised throughout Switzerland by commissions, or boards, whose number of members is not uniform. The boards are not identical with the political city, or town councils, but are more or less independent of the political authorities, being either elected directly by popular vote, or in a few cases appointed by the city council, and managing the schools independent of direct interference. Usually the school boards are essentially coördinate with, not subordinate to, the city councils.

The intermediate school authorities are elected in Zürich by popular vote, but in other cantons they are appointed by the supreme cantonal authority. They are considered executive officers as well as inspectors. In two cantons, Aargau and Solothurn, these functions are separated and given into the hands of different men. In nearly all the cantons professional and authoritative supervision is exercised by these intermediate school officers and the cantonal or state inspector. In more complicated school systems a superintendent or inspector for each kind of schools is appointed, namely, for the primary, advanced elementary, secondary, etc.

The cantonal or state authorities are constituted with even less uniformity than the lower ones. In Graubünden and in the smaller democratic original cantons (such as Uri, Obwalden, and Zug) the highest educational authority is separated from the executive branch of the government, and perfectly independent, except that it is legally obliged to report annually. In the other cantons the school authorities are connected with the political authorities in as much as the presiding officer must be a member of the government. Two methods are noticeable in this: Either the weight of decision is placed in the hands of the gov.

ernment representatives and the professional members only act as superintendents and inspectors (as is done in Berne, Glarus, Baselland, Thurgau, and Vaud), or the educational department has the duty of management and the government officers merely reserve a nominal control (as is done in Zürich, Luzern, Schwyz, Nidwalden, Freiburg, Solothurn, Baselstadt, Schaffhausen, both the Appenzells, St. Gall, Aargau, Tessin, Wallis, Neuenburg, Geneva).

In some cantons the teachers' association, or its representatives (as in Zürich, Berne, Neuenburg, and Geneva), or the school inspectors (as in Schwyz and other cantons), or the faculty of the normal school (as in Solothurn) has a legal influence upon the central management of the schools. In the cantons of Berne, Freiburg, and Vaud the political authorities enter upon the management of the lower schools by supervising the discipline and attendance.

D.-SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SPECIAL PROVISION.

For the purpose of regulating the hygienic conditions of the schools, with reference to architecture, furniture, and sanitary control, a number of cantons have made thorough legal provision. The Swiss Zeitschrift für Statistik for 1884 gives a complete list of all the regulations and laws in force. Generally speaking, honest efforts are made to come up to legal requirements and to the results of recent investigations as far as possible under existing circumstances. In some cities the school authorities are more vigorous in this respect than in the country, and in consequence the latest progress in hygiene is considered; thus bath rooms are put into the schools of Basel. The cities of Berne and Winterthur have introduced instruction in swimming as part of the gymnastic exercises; open air games are organized in Zürich, Winterthur, Waedensweil, Berne, Freiburg, Basel, Schaffhausen, St. Gall, Aarau, Weinfelden, in the college of Mariahilf in Schwyz, and other places. Skating, too, is frequently encouraged by the school authorities, who arrange for skating vacations, and by preparing icefields for this sport; excursions on foot and on the railroads are arranged during the summer. The introduction of hygienic school furni ture is an object of great solicitude everywhere in Switzerland. The so-called perpendicular writing in preference to slanting writing is at present the subject of most animated controversies. Several cities have arranged for regular examinations of the pupils' eyes at stated intervals, others have made the ears and the organs of speech subjects of special investigation.

In several cantons, especially in large cities, the school authorities furnish warm dinners and clothes to indigent pupils, and afford opportunity for changing and drying wet clothing of children who come from a distance. During summer vacation colonies and "milk cures" are arranged for poor and sickly children; also asylums where children may be kept after school hours and employed with manual work. Zürich, Basel, St. Gall, Geneva and a few other cities have special classes for weak