in Tessin. Drawing is not taught in Obwalden, Nidwalden, Appenzell a Rh., and Wallis; while in the schools of Tessin and Nidwalden drawing is taught to the pupils of school age in separate voluntary drawing schools.

(8) Female handiwork is optional in Uri.

(9) Gymnastics, only for boys in Uri, Schwyz, Nidwalden, Freiburg, Appenzell a. Rh., Tessin; optional for girls in Berne and Luzern. No legal enactments concerning gymnastics are in existence in Appenzell i. Rh., and Graubünden; but federal laws prescribe gymnastics for all the male youth over 10 years of age in every canton.

(10) Religion is a study optional with the parents according to the federal constitution. It is placed entirely outside of the pale of the public school organization in Neuenburg and Geneva, while in Luzern, Uri, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Catholic Freiburg, and Vaud, the responsibility is shared with the church and the clergy. In the cantons of Solothurn and Appenzell i. Rh., religion is taught without reference to denominational distinctions.

To the foregoing regular branches must be added some special branches:

(1) Bookkeeping in Berne, Schwyz, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Glarus, Solothurn, Graubünden, Aargau, Thurgau, Wallis, but only optional in the schools of Freiburg and Tessin.

(2) Hygiene in Solothurn, in the girls' industrial schools of Neuenburg, and optional in Tessin.

(3) Science of government in Freiburg, Vaud, Wallis, Neuenburg, and Geneva; optional in Tessin.

(4) Arboriculture in Obwalden, elements of political economy in Neuenburg, agriculture in Geneva; also in some communities in Vaud. 5) Domestic economy for girls in Freiburg, Solothurn, St. Gall, Vaud, Neuenburg, and Geneva.

(6) Manual training for boys in Vaud, Neuenburg, and Geneva. (7) A foreign language in Graubünden (German for Romanic children), Baselstadt (French), Geneva (German); optional in Berne, Luzern, Aargau, and Neuenburg.

In the cantons of Berne, Freiburg, and Tessin, a double course is in operation, carried through by every school, and resulting later on in the bifurcation spoken of heretofore.

The advanced elementary school differs principally from the simple. elementary school in its obligatory teaching of a foreign tongue. The branches of study in this kind of schools are:

Mother tongue, one or two foreign languages and arithmetic, mostly in connection with bookkeeping; geometry, optional only in Tessin and Wallis; in Luzern also for girls; geography and history; some cantons restrict these branches to geography and history of Switzerland exclusively, with science of government, natural history, and science, singing, drawing (in Wallis only for boys), penmanship (in Tessin only for

boys), gymnastics (obligatory for all boys between 10 and 15; in Aargau the use of arms is obligatory); religion, as above stated.

To these regular branches the following are added as obiigatory branches: Manual training for boys in Geneva; female handiwork for girls in Luzern, Schwyz, Tessin, Zug, Solothurn, Baselstadt, Schaffhausen, St. Gall, Graubünden, Aargau, Tessin, Vaud, Wallis, Neuenburg, Geneva; domestic economy in Luzern, Schwyz, Tessin, Vaud, Neuenburg, and Geneva; horticulture in Tessin; pedagogics in Neuenburg and Geneva.

Optional studies are: Ancient and modern languages in Zürich; exercises under arms in Berne, Vaud, and Neuenburg; elements of physics and chemistry and free-hand drawing in Freiburg; commercial branches in Baselstadt and Geneva; instrumental music in Aargau; agriculture and hygiene in Wallis.

As a rule these advanced elementary schools have the double purpose of offering a more complete general education, and also of acting as a foundation for the higher institutions, such as classical schools; they are considered decentralizing parallel institutions for the lower classes of the real secondary, or centralized cantonal schools. It is plain, therefore, that these advanced elementary schools fashion their courses of study in some cantons after those of the lower grades of secondary schools.

In some cantons the study of vocal music is carried beyond school age and taught in separate singing schools (Zürich, Baselland, and Thurgau).

Schools for Female Handiwork.-Female handiwork is taught either as a branch of the course in elementary schools, or treated in separate institutions, intimately related to the elementary schools. The more populous cantons arrange from time to time courses for the training of teachers for that branch.

Manual Training for Boys.-This is an integral part of the programme of normal school education in the cantons of Berne, Tessin, Vaud, Neuenburg, and Geneva; in the last three cantons it is introduced in the elementary school and is obligatory in Geneva. In Vaud and Neuenburg the introduction of manual training is left to the local school authorities, who receive a cantonal subsidy if they introduce it. In all the other cantons, it is left to the initiative of private persons and societies; in Thurgau it is subsidized by the government, but not directed. In 1891 manual training was given to boys in the cantons of Zürich (9 schools), Berne (15), Nidwalden (1), Glarus (2), Freiburg (4), Solothurn (3), Baselstadt (2, of which one has 29 classes and 538 pupils), Schaffhausen (7), St. Gall (6), Graubünden (3), Aargau (3), Thurgau (4), Vaud (2), and Neuenburg (4). The Swiss Society for the Promotion of Manual Training arranges annual courses for the training of teachers and issues regulatious for their examination.

Continuation Schools.-The pupil's age at which these schools begin

. their work is not uniformly fixed, since the term, continuation school, is used for obligatory supplementary schools for children past school age, as well as for advanced elementary schools for children within school age (7 to 15). Besides these obligatory and voluntary schools there are many other institutions under different names, as industrial, drawing, trade, Sunday, evening, repetition, supplementary, and technical schools, all of which deserve to be classed among the contin uation schools. Prof. Hunziker takes the term to mean, all schools which young people of both sexes attend for a certain number of hours per week or day, after completing an elementary course, either for the purpose of retaining or improving their general education, or of gaining knowledge and skill necessary for the occupation or trade they have chosen.

For the boys the Swiss continuation schools may be grouped in three classes, which are rarely found in their original state:

(a) Schools for the purpose of technical, industrial, or agricultural training. These schools have, in the nature of the case, voluntary attendance. They are organized to fit special technical needs; hence we see them provided with special institutions, such as workshops, etc., in order to facilitate practical skill in trades or occupations.

(b) Schools for the purpose of supplementing general education between the ages of 15 and 20. Their character and management favor obligatory attendance which, in some cases, is decreed by local authorities.

(c) Schools for those who have not become proficient in the branches taught in the regular elementary schools. These schools aim at securing the mimum of education necessary for civil life. In order to gain their end it is necessary that instruction in them be obligatory.

A review of the entire system of continuation schools of Switzerland gives the following results:

(1) No canton is without continuation schools.

(2) One canton only (Appenzell i. Rh.) is without a legal enactment concerning continuation schools upon which the school authorities could base the institution.

(3) Voluntary continuation schools only are found in Zürich, Berne, Glarus, Baselstadt, Graubünden, Geneva, Appenzell a. Rh., St. Gall, and Aargau. In the last three cantons some communities have insisted upon obligatory attendance.

(4) In some cantons obligatory attendance has been carried through conditionally-that is to say, in Schaffhausen for all who have not completed a full eight years' course in an elementary school; in Luzern for all who have not spent at least one year in the advanced elementary school. In Schwyz, Freiburg, Tessin, and Neuenburg the obligatory attendance depends upon the failure in examination for admission.

(5) The obligatory continuation schools of the cantons Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Zug, Freiburg, Appenzell i. Rh., Tessin, and

Wallis are only review courses for army recruits; in Tessin and Wallis these courses are combined with the general repetition school, while Luzern, side by side with its obligatory continuation schools, has, in a number of communities, special obligatory review courses for army recruits insufficiently prepared. Berne possesses the latter institution also, but attendance here is optional.

(6) The cantons of Solothurn, Baselland, and Thurgau have oblig atory continuation schools for more or less organic continuation of the instruction in the lower schools.

(7) The system of continuation schools for the girls (which includes cooking, domestic practice, and schools for servants, etc.) has begun to develop during the last few decades (a) by connecting special continuation courses with girls' secondary schools in Zug, Freiburg, Baselstadt, and St. Gall, or to the cantonal review schools in Zürich; (b) in connection with women's industrial schools in Zürich, Baselstadt, and St. Gall; (c) in connection with continuation schools for boys in Zürich, Glarus, Baselstadt, Neuenburg; (d) by means of special schools established by communities or societies and subsidized by the cantons in Zürich, Berne, Luzern, Glarus, Solothurn, Appenzell a. Rh., St. Gall, Graubünden, Aargau, Neuenburg, and Geneva.

(8) Industrial continuation schools are under the supervision of the Federal Government and receive regular subsidies. During the scholastic year 1891 the Federal Government of Switzerland subsidized 61 industrial schools, in which drawing and theoretical instruction was given; 13 in Zürich, 10 in Berne, 2 in Schwyz, 5 in Glarus, 1 in Zug, 1 in Freiburg, 3 in Solothurn, 1 in Baselstadt, 1 in Schaffhausen, 2 in Appenzell a. Rh., 2 in St. Gall, 2 in Graubüden, 10 in Aargau, 5 in Thurgau, 2 in Neuenburg, 1 in Geneva.

During the same year the Government subsidized 35 drawing schools-4 in Berne, 1 in Uri, 3 in Obwalden, 2 in Nidwalden, 2 in Freiburg, 3 in Baselland, 3 in St. Gall, 15 in Tessin, 1 in Vaud, 1 in Neuenburg.

(9) Parallel with industrial continuation schools are the agricultural institutions; they are mostly connected with schools for the purpose of supplementing general education. In Wallis agriculture is taught in connection with elementary schools (some communities make them obligatory), and the promotion of arboriculture is left to the initiative. of teachers.

Private schools.-Side by side with public schools there are scattered all over Switzerland a number of private elementary and secondary schools, the right to teach and to open schools being granted by the Federal constitution and the school laws of the cantons; but the cantonal authorities have everywhere reserved the right of supervision.

II. SECONDARY, TECHNICAL, AND HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING.

(A) Secondary schools. As was said before, the so-called secondary or middle schools in Switzerland are advanced elementary schools,

"grammar" schools in the American acceptation of the term; the real secondary schools-that is, those which lead up to higher seats of learning and correspond to our high schools and academiesare variously called cantonal schools, complete secondary schools, progymnasia, and gymnasia; again, at other places they are called higher schools for girls and lyceums. In this group of schools there is much less uniformity than in the previous group-that of elementary schools. They have but one point in common, namely, that their character of secondary schools begins at the pupil's age of 15—that is, the time when obligatory attendance ceases.

However, their courses vary in extent and duration almost as much as do the private secondary schools of America. Some of them lead up to the university, others to the polytechnicum, still others to other professional schools; hence the latter complete their courses sooner. In some cantons these institutions are communal or private. Many of them are State or cantonal schools, and the latter are frequently brought into competition with the former, hence are stimulated to more vigorous activity than they might otherwise exhibit. A review of the statistics of the secondary system will be found in section F.

(B) Technical schools.-These institutions may be divided into those that, according to age of the pupils and conditions of admission, are parallel with secondary schools mentioned before, and those that bear the character of higher institutions of learning. To the first category belong, above all, the teachers' normal and training schools, which will be more minutely described in section E. To the same category belong the industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools. The list in 1891 contained

(a) Trade and industrial schools: Three technical schools, in Winterthur, Biel, Burgdorf. These institutions give technical education for the pursuit of trades and industries. The school at Winterthur is famous all over Europe.

Two weaving schools, at Zürich and Wattwil; 8 watchmakers' schools, at Biel, St. Immer, Pruntrut, Solothurn, Neuenburg, Chaux-de-Fonds, Locle, Geneva; 3 mechanics' schools, at Chaux-de-Fonds, Locle, Geneva; 1 carving school at Brienz; 7 schools for woman's work, at Berne, Basel, St. Gall, Chaux-de-Fonds, Chur, Geneva, and Zürich.

Seven workshops, for woodwork in Zürich; metal-workers in Winterthur; joiners and shoemakers in Berne; bookbinding, basket-braiding, and stone-cutting in Freiburg.

Nine art schools and institutions, for industrial art in Zürich, connected with industrial museums; in Winterthur, connected with the technical school; in Berne and Biel, connected with technical schools; Luzern, Basel, connected with industrial schools; St. Gall, connected with the industrial museum; Chaux-de-Fonds, connected with the school of design and engraving; Geneva, connected with the cantonal school of industrial art.