medicine has been assumed by the Government as a consequence of the former duty. In accordance with article 34 a law has been passed forbidding the employment in factories of children below 14 years of age (1877). This law also provides that for young people between 14 and 16 years the necessary attendance in continuation schools or courses is to be included in the normal work-day, which is restricted to eleven hours. The organization of the entire system of secondary schools and higher education (exclusive of the Federal polytechnic university, medical examinations, which influence the preparatory schools, and subsidies, which affect industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools) is left to the cantons, as is also that of the elementary-school system (exclusive of gymnastics for boys) in accordance with article 27. Since 1880, all the cantons have inserted into their constitutions provisions referring to public education and have passed laws to execute these provisions, which, though in every case specific, are by no means uniform. II.—PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SWISS SCHOOLS. A.-SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 1. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. Purpose and extent.- In expressing the object of the elementary or people's school, the various cantonal school laws exhibit two distinct currents: Some say it is the object of the school to educate the whole child, while others claim that the school has the sole purpose of giving instruction. The first definition was adopted by Scherr. of 1832 says: The Zürich school law The people's school shall train the children of all classes of society, according to uniform principles, to become intellectually active, civilly useful, and morally good men and women. Partly in verbal repetition of the foregoing, partly in different words, but essentially the same in meaning, the laws of Baselland (1835), Zug (1850), Graubünden (1853), Bern (1856), Aargau (1865), Wallis (1873), Innerrhoden (1875), Schwyz (1877), Nidwalden (1879), and Schaffhausen (1879) express the object of school education. Very much differently sounds the law in Oberwalden (1876), to wit: Every community shall see to it that all its children of school age attend an elementary school that offers the knowledge necessary for common life. The law in Luzern (1879) says: The primary and continuation schools are designed to give, in connection with the parental home, a training such as is generally considered essential for life. The law in Baselstadt (1880) defines the object of the elementary school to be, "To make its pupils familiar with elementary knowledge." The other cantons do not define the purpose of the school at all, hence are indirectly allied with the second group. Oberwalden and Freiburg state in their constitutions that "school education shall be conducted in a religious and patriotic spirit;" they also secure to the clergy a legal influence upon school education. The length of school age is not uniform in Switzerland. The uniform part is the medium age between 6 and 15 years, embracing six to nine courses. In the cantons Freiburg, Aargau, Tessin, Vaud, Neuenburg, and Geneva a prescholastic course, kindergarten or maternal school, is part of the legal organization of the elementary school, but attendance in these prescholastic institutions is not obligatory, except in Neuenburg and Geneva, where the upper grade of the infant school is also the lowest grade of the obligatory elementary school. At the close of the elementary school everywhere in Switzerland efforts are made to keep the boys and girls at their studies, by means of voluntary or obligatory continuation schools, review courses for army recruits, etc. Thus an extension of school work to the eighteenth or twentieth year of age is aimed at and successfully secured. The schools for children of customary school age (6 to 15) are organized as follows: (a) The elementary or primary school (6 to 11), attendance in which is obligatory; and it is everywhere open all the year round. (b) The intermediate or grammar school, for pupils who do not intend to enter secondary schools. As a rule this intermediate department has two branches. (1) An advanced elementary school, attendance being voluntary and the course extending over four years. It is variously called district, real, and secondary school (not to be mistaken for American secondary schools). (2) A simple continuation of the elementary school, commonly open only half-day and in most places organized in form of obligatory continuation schools. The duty of attending school begins at the close of the sixth year of age, or as near that age as is convenient, in Zürich, Berne, Glarus, Zug, Baselstadt, Baselland, Schaffhausen, both Appenzells, St. Gall, Thurgau, Tessin, Neuenburg, and Geneva. In all other cantons the limit is the completed seventh year of age. Admission takes place in spring in most cantons; in Appenzell and Geneva in August; in Uri, Graubünden, Tessin, and Wallis in the fall, because in these cantons schools are almost exclusively winter schools. For schools of six grades in Luzerne, pupils are admitted at 7 years also. The duty of attending school extends over six to nine years, namely: Six years in Zürich, Uri, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Zug, Baselland, Appenzell i. Rh.; six to seven years in Luzern; seven years in Schwyz, Glarus, Appenzell a. Rh., St. Gall, Neuenburg and Geneva; eight years in Baselstadt, Schaffhausen, Aargau, Tessin, and Wallis; eight to nine years in Freiburg, Solothurn, Graubünden, and Thurgau; nine years in Berne and Vaud. Counting the half years of required attendance, we range the cantons as follows: 6, Uri; 8, Tessin and Wallis; 8 to 9, Graubünden; 10 to 12, Luzern; 12, Zürich, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Zug, Solothurn, Baselland; 14, Schwyz, Glarus, Appenzell a. Rh., Neuenburg, Geneva; 15, Thurgau; 14 to 16, Schaffhausen and Aargau; 16, Baselstadt; 16 to 18, Freiburg; 18, Berne and Vaud. The cantons Appenzell i. Rh. and St. Gall can not well be placed in this scale. Appenzell i. Rh. has in different communities, in schools of six grades, forty-two, thirtysix, and twenty-six school weeks, and should be credited with six to twelve half years. St. Gall requires seven school years, but some of its schools are half, others three-fourths, and still others whole-year schools. Hence it should be credited with seven to fourteen half years. Attempts have been made to classify the cantons with reference to the number of school weeks and hours, adding the amount of time required by obligatory attendance in continuation schools or courses. (a) Calculations of the secretary of education, Mr. Grob, in his year book for 1887, group the cantons with reference to the number of hours spent in school: Group I. Uri, 3,760; Appenzell i. Rh., 4,072. II. Wallis, 5,440; Graubünden, 5,600; Nidwalden, 5,784; Tessin, 5,808; III. Aargau, 6,372; Schwyz, 6,548. IV. Solothurn, 7,458; St. Gall, 7,644; Baselland, 7,704; Zürich, 7,788. V. Schaffhausen, 8,274; Glarus, 8,418; Berne, 8,424; Freiburg, 8,466; Neuenburg, 8,640. VI. Thurgau, 9,148; Vaud, 9,291; Baselstadt, 9,416; Geneva, 10,136. (b) Calculation found in the statistical atlas prepared for the World's Exposition in Paris 1889, with reference to the number of school weeks in the different cantons: Group I. Appenzell i. Rh., 178; Wallis, 202; Uri, 206; Graubünden, 208; Luzern, 211. II. Nidwalden, 247; Appenzell a. Rh., 251; Obwalden, 258; Tessin, 260; Zug, 266. III. Solothurn, 281; Schwyz, 293; Zürich, 302; St. Gall, 309; Berne, 310; Bas selland, 312. IV. Schaffhausen, 322; Thurgau, 325; Neuenburg, 332; Glarus, 335; Freiburg, 339. V. Baselstadt and Geneva, 352; Aargau, 360; Vaud, 377. It is well to state explicitly that these groupings have but a very relative value, and are subject to local and personal exceptions which for certain schools and groups of pupils cause considerable modification, but which can not be considered in calculating averages. If we take into the scope of the elementary school the so-called secondary schools, which in Switzerland mean grammar schools, and attendance in which is not obligatory, we have to make this brief explanation: these schools have as a rule the double object of giving a more general education, and likewise serve as foundation for the advanced schools which in America are called secondary or classical schools. The one branch of this bifurcated school, that which intends to complete a common school education, scarcely advances beyond the scope. of an elementary school. If, however, we consider the great number of pupils it has, it becomes plain why the greater attention and care is bestowed upon it, according to the saying, "the greatest good to the greatest number." Since the fall of 1888 it has become obvious that this branch (the advanced common school branch) has had much to do with the recent intellectual high standing of the army recruits. This advanced grade of common schools (called upper schools in Berne, écoles régionales in Freiburg, continuation schools in Aargau, middle schools in Appenzell a. Rh., and secondary schools in Vaud) is a mixture of secondary and primary schools, just as the advanced schools of the other cantons are mixtures of secondary schools, in the American sense of the word, and advanced elementary schools. There is no division line possible, since the differences are too numerous. As a rule the upper grades of the common school of nearly all cities and towns have a mixed character, and it simply depends upon the personal leaning of the pupil or the inclination of his parents to decide in what direction he is to progress. (b) Classification of schools.-The limits of the different grades, as well as their definition, is different in the various cantons; just so the age at which the advanced common schools and real secondary schools branch off from the simple elementary schools. Still they may be grouped for purposes of classification in three distinct types: (1) The general common school with a course of six to seven years followed by an advanced school, one branch of which leads into the secondary and preparatory school for universities: Zürich, Luzern, Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Glarus, Zug, Freiburg, Solothurn, Baselland, both the Appenzells, St. Gall, Graubünden, Thurgau, Wallis, Neuenburg, Geneva. (2) Unified organization of the entire elementary school with the longest possible course, but with an early bifurcation of the upper grades into advanced elementary and real secondary schools: Berne, Schaffhausen, Aargau, Tessin, Vaud. (3) Bifurcation of the simple and advanced common school in the middle of the course, that is, after four or five years' study: Baselstadt. The primary grades are everywhere taught by class teachers. Sometimes all the children of school age in a small place are taught by one teacher (ungraded school). In more populous places they are graded and taught by several teachers (graded schools), or the children of a community are separated according to location and sex (parallel schools). Most cantons have legal enactments concerning the maximum number of pupils. When that is exceeded a parallelizing takes place in the primary grades. The following maxima are observed: Baselland, 120; Zürich, 100; resp., 80; Solothurn, St. Gall, Aargau, and Thurgau, 80; Berne, Luzern, and Schwyz, 80 in graded, 70 in ungraded schools; Freiburg, 70; Glarus, 70 in all day, 50 in half-day schools; Uri, 70 under one teacher; Schaffhausen, 70 under several teachers, 60 under one teacher; Zug, Tessin, Nidwalden, 60 under one teacher; Wallis, 60 (when 50 pupils the girls must be separated); Baselstadt, 52 in primary grades, 45 in advanced grades; Neuenburg, Vaud, and Geneva, 50. Some cantons also state the maximum for advanced common schools. When that is reached or exceeded a division is considered necessary. Thus, Zürich, 50 (provisionally 35); Luzern, 45; Baselstadt, 45; Berne, 30. In grading the schools some cantons, especially in Catholic Switzerland, exhibit a decided tendency toward separation of the sexes, notably in larger cities. The proportion of schools containing both sexes in 1881 was as follows: In Appenzell i. Rh., 66-6 per cent; Nidwalden, 61 per cent; Uri, 57.1 per cent; Neuenburg, 56.4 per cent; Freiburg, 54-1 per cent; Schwyz, 50.9 per cent; Tessin, 43 per cent; Zug, 38.6 per cent; Geneva, 36-6 per cent; Wallis, 35.3 per cent; Obwalden, 28.9 per cent; Baselstadt, 9.4 per cent; while all or nearly all primary schools were mixed in Glarus, 100 per cent; Thurgau, 100 per cent; Appenzell a. Rh., 99 per cent; Baselland, 98-4 per cent. In the advanced common schools both the system of class teachers and special teachers are found. The tendency toward dividing the instruction among special teachers is the result of the peculiar special examinations for teachers (Zürich and Berne); partly also of legal requirements that such schools should have, at least two or three teachers (Freiburg, Solothurn, Baselland, and Aargau.) (c) Course of study.-The branches of study in the primary and continuation schools (primary and grammar grades, as we are accustomed to term them) are as follows: (1) Reading and writing of the mother tongue with the aid of object and colloquial lessons. (2) Arithmetic and geometry.-The latter is not taught in Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Zug, Appenzell a. Rh., Neuenburg, Wallis (as to girls), and it is optional with the teachers in Freiburg and Tessin. (3) History and geography, of Switzerland only, in Luzern, Uri, Schwyz, Nidwalden, Solothurn, Appenzell i. Rh., Graubünden, Tessin, Geneva; restricted thus only in the minimum requirements in Berne and Freiburg; history alone restricted to Swiss history in Obwalden, Glarus, Zug, Appenzell a. Rh., Aargau (exclusive of continuation schools), Wallis and Neuenburg; general geography optional for schools of Tessin. (4) Natural history is not taught in Luzern, Uri, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Appenzell a. Rh., Wallis, Neuenburg, and is left to the discretion of the teacher in the schools of Freiburg and Tessin. (5) Penmanship. (6) Singing, optional in the schools of Uri. (7) Drawing, optional in the schools of Uri, while it is restricted to free-hand drawing in Freiburg, and restricted to instrumental drawing |