teachers in Switzerland was established in the canton of Luzerne. Abbot Benedict, of St. Urban (1768-1781), established in his abbey two educational institutions, one for the youths of the upper class of society of Luzerne, in order to prepare them for positions in the Government service; the other, which he called normal school, for the purpose of training young teachers for rural districts. The work begun by Abbot Benedict was continued by his successors, Martin Balthasar, of Luzerne, and Karl Ambrosius Gentz, of Soleure.

The honor of having founded the first state normal school belongs to the canton Aargau; it was opened in 1822. The development of the entire Swiss educational system has been essentially aided by the Swiss Society for the Common Weal, and particularly did the professional training of teachers receive the society's attention and care. As early as 1825, Rev. Mr. Wirz reported upon the results of the different cantons in public instruction and preparation of teachers. In 1826, the society received two reports, one of Rector Hanhart and one of Father Girard. The former advocated separate teachers' seminaries after the German plan, the latter normal (or model) schools. Hanhart being a German, and searching for suggestions among German sources, naturally leaned toward German models. Girard, of French origin, looked for French models and French institutions, and adopted French technical terms, the term for institutions of professional training in France being normal, which means model, schools. The people were disinclined to adopt the term seminary, because it was coupled with the idea of

its being a professional school for the clergy. The term generally used in German cantons is Lehrerbildungs-Anstalt (Institution for the Training of Teachers). In French cantons the term École-Normale (normal school) is used.

In a subsequent chapter we shall describe the present status of the systems of preparing teachers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. In looking back upon the historical development of the normal schools in these countries, it must be admitted that most of the criticism uttered was aimed at faults and deficiencies which have for the most part disappeared in the course of the last twenty years, but, with a view at our own diversified systems of normal schools, it is of interest to see how they have become what they are, so as to fortify the position taken by all friends of popular education. Essential changes have been made in the normal schools of German-speaking nations, the course of study has been enriched, the length of the course extended; more rigid requirements for admission as regards the quantity of knowledge and a later age for admission have been fixed; new branches of study have been introduced, suitable buildings erected, and the means of rational instruc tion, such as museums, laboratories, libraries, etc., have been increased or improved; above all, the practice or experimental school has been generally accepted as an essential requisite of the normal school. All this has raised the normal school in central Europe to a degree of perfec known before.

Much of the criticism uttered in years past, and even now, is owing to the fact that the normal schools have always been, and will forever be, subjected to the minute inspection and careful observation of the authorities and the people. "He who builds on the roadside has many critics," and no school is so open and comes in such close contact with the people as the normal school. The task of normal schools to train young men and women for the purpose of teaching is most difficult, as they are often poorly prepared, and it is especially difficult, as it has to be done in a comparatively short time. As regards the extent of knowledge and skill to be acquired, it may safely be said that they are greater than any other secondary and superior school would attempt to offer during the same period. And then we must consider that the gradu ates of normal schools enter at once into positions in which every misstep in their official capacity, every faux pas in their moral conduct, is subjected to public criticism, because the consequences may be most harmful. Such things happen while the candidates are still young, scarcely twenty years old, an age at which candidates of medicine, law, and theology, or other professions are still students, or are serving a probationary term of practical work without responsibility save such as may be imposed by superior officers. The normal schools influence the life of the people more directly than other schools do. They are the leaven of the lower schools, and reforms in the lower schools neces sarily emanate from them; hence they are apt to wound deep-seated prejudices, and disturb time-honored modes of procedure. Dr. Kehr, of Gotha and Halberstadt (see page 148), says that the normal school, of all the many kinds of schools in existence, is the least known and often the most misjudged. Complaints concerning faulty or insufficient professional training come very frequently from former normal-school students, and from the most aspiring ones at that, from men who had high ideals and who have failed to realize them. In these plaints of dissatisfaction others chime in, men of more pretense than talent, simply because in our age of absolute publicity it has become one of the characteristics of the public man to criticise existing institutions.

However, the fight against the normal schools in central Europe is part and parcel of a greater question. It is the dissatisfaction which the people feel in being obliged to select a profession for their boys before they can in any way have showed predilections or special talents. The gymnasium, the vestibule of the university for the learned professions; the Realschule or Realgymnasium, intended to prepare for other liberal professions; the industrial schools, aiming at preparing skilled labor; the normal schools for teachers, all presuppose an early decision with regard to the choice of a future occupation or profession. Hence the efforts at inducing the governments in central Europe to establish a common elementary and secondary school system, which would not require a differentiation until a later age than is now fixed, say the fif teenth or sixteenth year. The prevailing caste distinctions will, however, prevent this for some time, until the leveling influence of universal

franchise and other influences have sufficiently prepared the soil for a common school. There will always be a need for different professional schools, but it is thought that a common basis of elementary and secondary education could be found for all or nearly all of them.

II.—STATISTICS OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN GERMANY, AUSTRIA, HUNGARY, AND SWITZERLAND.

A. Germany, being a confederation of states, has no imperial schools except military and naval schools. Each state manages its own schools, hence we are obliged to treat each state separately in this chapter.

Prussia had, in 1891, 120 state normal schools, 112 of which were for men, 8 for women. These state schools have an average of 90 to 100 students, about 30 graduates per year, and 7 or 8 professors or instructors each. Their course of study is one of three years, except in 7, in which it is four years. The state paid in 1892-'93 for their maintenance the sum of 5,841,823 marks, or $1,390,354, of which $664,324 is paid for salaries, $526,626 for boarding the students, and $200,404 for incidentals. The foregoing sums do not include cost of erecting new buildings. The cost per capita is $150, which is paid by the state. Beside these state institutions there are 65 private normal schools, chiefly for female and for Jewish teachers, but no statistics concerning them are available. The state maintains 35 preparatory schools in which the students are prepared for admission to the normal schools. There are 20 private schools of that kind. This is not the sum total of the efforts in behalf of teachers' training, for the state subsidizes a number of secondary schools in which university graduates may acquire technical skill in teaching, and also a few university seminaries; but since these institutions are designed to prepare secondary teachers, we may leave them out of consideration, and confine ourselves to normal schools for elementary teachers.

Bavaria had 14 state normal schools in 1891, of which 11 were for men, 3 for women. Ten of the schools had a two-years' course, 4 a fiveyears' course. The first 10 get their students from preparatory schools, 31 in number, specially established to prepare their graduates for admission to the normal schools. These preparatory schools have a threeyears' course. The Bavarian normal schools have an average of 11 professors, 90 to 100 students, 35 graduates per year each. The cost of maintenance varies slightly between 40,000 and 70,000 marks ($10,000 to $17,500). There are beside the aforementioned state schools several private institutions for the training of teachers connected with secondary schools, but no detailed statistics are available.

Saxony had 15 state and 5 private normal schools, 18 for men, 2 for women. All have a six-years' course, which includes preparatory work of three years. These normal schools have an average of 130 students and 12 to 14 professors and instructors. The average cost of maintenance is 56,000 marks ($14,000) each.

Würtemberg had 7 state and 2 private normal schools, 6 for men and 3 for women. They all have a three-years' course, about 80 students and 10 professors each, and their cost of maintenance amounts to about 40,000 marks ($10,000) each. Würtemberg maintains 4 preparatory schools, which, however, do not furnish all the students admitted to the normal schools. Other students come from classical and modern secondary schools.

Baden had 5 normal schools, each having a three-years' course, with an average attendance of 100 students, 10 professors, and 30 graduates per year each. One preparatory school prepares students for admission to the normal schools. Other students prefer to obtain their preparation in secondary schools.

Hessia had 4 normal schools, 1 of which is for women. They have a three-years' course, and about the same number of students and professors as found in Prussian, Bavarian, and other normal schools. Mecklenburg-Schwerin had 2 normal schools for men.

Mecklenburg-Strelitz had 1 normal school for men.

Thuringia. The 12 principalities commonly called the Thuringian states had 17 normal schools, 14 of which were for men, 3 for women. Oldenburg had 2 normal schools.

Brunswick had 4 normal schools, 2 for men, 2 for women.

Lubeck (free city) has no normal school, but draws its supply of teachers from other states of the Empire.

Bremen (free city) had 3 normal schools, 1 for men and 2 for women. Hamburg (free city) had 3 normal schools, 1 for men and 2 for

women.

Alsace-Lorraine had 9 normal schools, 6 for men and 3 for women; also 2 private normal schools and 4 preparatory schools.

B. Austria in 1891 had 70 state normal schools, 42 of which were for men, 28 for women. They had 993 professors and 9,854 students, with 2,128 graduates in 1891. Forty of the Austrian normal schools were German, 12 Bohemian, 6 Polish, 2 Italian, 2 Servian, and 8 mixed. The course of study in the Austrian normal schools is one of four years. For admission a preparation is required, such as a four years' attendance in a secondary school secures. Few of the Austrian normal schools have preparatory classes. The state subsidies for normal schools amounted to only 82,700 florins, or $29,524; the provincial governments (those of the separate crownlands) pay the bulk of the expenses.

C. Hungary in 1891 had 25 state (18 for women and 7 for men) and 47 parochial normal schools (37 for men and 10 for women). These 72 institutions had 4,346 students and 709 professors. Fifty-eight of these normal schools were Hungarian, 5 German, 4 Roumanian, 1 Servian, 4 mixed. The law prescribes a three-years' course for them, but the minister of education has decreed the establishment of a post-graduate course which is made obligatory in most of these normal schools. In

34 parochial schools the course is also one of four years; in 13 it is shorter. The number of graduates in 1891 was 1,093 and the expenditures 894,478 florins, or $319,328.

D. Switzerland had 37 normal schools, 23 for men, 13 for women, 1 for both sexes; 22 are German, 13 French, and 2 Italian; 25 of these 37 schools are state institutions maintained by the cantons, 4 are city, and 8 private schools. In 1890 the number of students was 2,002, taught by 358 professors. The entire cost of maintenance was 1,119,000 francs, or $215,967. The course of study is one of four years. Some of these schools get their students from secondary schools, but most of them from special preparatory schools.

SUMMARY OF STATISTICS AND COMPARISONS.

Of

Germany has 283 normal schools, 200 for men, 83 for women. these 283 institutions, 202 are state schools, 81 are private but under state supervision. The aggregate number of students can not be stated with accuracy, but a judicious estimate places it at 18,860 in public and 4,600 in private institutions, a total of 23,460 students.

Austria has 70 normal schools, 42 for men, 28 for women, all state institutions, with 9,854 students.

Hungary has 25 public (18 for men, 7 for women) and 47 parochial normal schools (37 for men, 10 for women), a total of 72 normal schools, with 4,346 students.

Switzerland has 37 normal schools (state, city, and private), 23 of which are for men, 13 for women, and 1 mixed, with a total of 2,002 students.

Germany has one normal school student to every 2,110 inhabitants. Austria one to every 2,425, Hungary one to every 4,018, and Switzerland one to every 1,457 inhabitants.

In the United States we find the sum total of students in normal schools (public and private), that is, in all institutions which offer, or lay claims to offering, professional training of teachers, to be 34,484 (in 1890), or one student to every 1,816 inhabitants. While this would seem a good showing, another comparison makes the United States appear in a less favorable light.

Germany has about 112,000 teachers in elementary schools and 23,460 normal-school students, which is about equal to 1 student to every 5 teachers. The United States has 363,935 teachers in common schools and 34,484 normal school students, which is 1 student to every 10 teachers. Now, if we would eliminate from the total number of students in this country all who attend normal schools only for the purpose of getting a secondary education, and never acquire or desire a teacher's professional training, the ratio might safely be put at 1 to 20. But that is mere guesswork. If, however, we consider the other fact, that almost all normal schools in Germany have a full three years' course and compare with that the normal schools of the United States (some of which