extent of gravel at each site. We found no significant positive or negative correlations between estimates of surface area covered by gravel and any water quality, contaminant, or biological variable. Therefore, reserve pit fluid contamination is considered the most likely source of most contaminants and water quality changes. Numerous studies have established that barium and chromium are excellent tracers for the fate of drill fluids (Gettlesen and Laird 1980; Chow and Snyder 1980; Kalil 1980; Liss et al. 1980). Similarly, increased salinity, total dissolved solids, hardness, and alkalinity have been recorded at a stream site receiving oily field discharge water (Woodward and Riley 1983). Despite the shortcomings of discriminant, regression, and other analyses in indicating cause and effect, these analyses are widely recognized as valuable in helping to forecast effects. Thus, waters with high turbidity, alkalinity, chromium, arsenic, or barium that are discharged or seep into tundra ponds will probably result in decreased taxonomic diversity and abundance in the receiving pond and more limited detrimental effects in other ponds with connections to the receiving ponds. effluent should meet standards established for each of these variables to reduce the likelihood of biological impacts. Also, the possible cumulative effect of multiple discharges at the same location should be considered, since arsenic, salts, and metals could be expected to accumulate in lentic systems over time. Therefore, reserve pit Although the variables described above would be highly useful in predischarge monitoring, we remain concerned that predischarge monitoring of metals and hydrocarbons will result in the reduction of direct tundra discharges, but cause an increase in disposal of reserve pit fluida by way of road treatment in the name of dust control. In 1983 and 1984, such road watering involved contaminated pit fluids that failed direct-discharge tests, and may have resulted in contaminants being spread over an even wider area of tundra wetlands. As long as reserve pits fill in the spring, some type of draining will be necessary. Ideally, industry and agency efforts should concentrate on achieving reinjection of reserve pit fluids into the permafrost strata of wells. Alternatively, some measure of protection could be achieved by lessening the need for dewatering. Progress toward this goal could be made in several ways: by enacting conservation measures applicable to drilling fluids; by developing and implementing technologies that reduce mud fluid volumes; by designing pits to limit snow-drift accumulation; by building deeper pits that cover less total area; by manually disposing of snow contaminated with crude and other pollutants, before general snow removal from the pad; and by careful planning of the use of each pit. Coupled with predischarge monitoring for contaminants or the institution of pollution control technologies, such a program should greatly improve the protection afforded wildlife and wildlife habitat on the North Slope. LITERATURE CITED Abraham, K.F. 1975. Waterbirds and oil-contaminated ponds at Point Storkersen, Alaska. M. S. Thesis. Iowa State University, Ames. 39 pp. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation. 1981. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 1980, 15th ed. Washington, D.C. 1134 PP. Atlas, R.M. 1975. Effects of temperature and crude oil composition on petroleum degradation. Appl. Microbiol. 30:396–403. Atlas, R.M. 1981. Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons: environmental perspective. Microbiol. Rev. 45:180-209. Bartonek, J.C. 1972. Summer foods of American widgeon, mallards, and green-winged teal near Great Slave Lake, N.W.T. Can. Field Nat. 82:140-144. Bengston, S.A. 1971. Food and feeding of diving ducks breeding at Lake Bergman, R.D., R.L. Howard, K.F. Abraham, and M.W. Weller. 1977. Water birds and their wetland resources in relation to oil development at Storkersen Point, Alaska. U.S. Dep. Int., Fish Wildl. Serv. Resour. Berridge, S.A., M.T. Thew, and A.G. Lorriston-Clark. 1969. The formation and stability of emulsions of water in crude petroleum and similar stocks. J. Inst. Pet. (London) 54:333-357. Buikema, A.L., Jr., and J. Cairns, Jr. (eds.). 1980. Aquatic invertebrate bioassays. ASTM STP 715. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. Butler, M., M.C. Miller, and S. Mozley. 1980. Macrobenthos. Pages 297-339 in J.E. Hobbie, ed. Limnology of tundra ponde: Barrow, Alaska. US/IBP Synthesis Series 13. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc. Stroudsburg, PA. Chow, T.J., and C.B. Snyder. 1980. Barium in marine environment: a potential indicator of drilling contamination. Pages 723-736 in Research on environmental fate and effects of drilling fluids and cuttings. American Petroleum Institute. January 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, FL. Chura, N.J. 1961. Food availability and preferences of juvenile mallards. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 26:121-134. Collias, N. E., and E. C. Collias. 1963. Selective feeding by wild ducklings of different species. Wilson Bull. 75(1):6–14. Connors, P.G. 1983. Effects of food resource levels on tundra bird populations. Pages 1-50 in Prudhoe Bay Waterflood Project Environmental Monitoring Program 1982. Final report. Chapter 7, Volume 4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District, Anchorage, Alaska. Cooley, W.W., and P.R. Lohnes. 1971. Multivariate data analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. 364 pp. Dames & Moore. 1978. Drilling fluid dispersion and biological effects of study for Lower Cook Inlet. C.O.S.T. Well. Prepared for Atlantic Richfield Company. Anchorage, Alaska. 309 pp. Derksen, D.V., T.C. Rothe, and W.D. Eldridge. 1981. Use of wetland habitats by birds in the National Petroleum Reserve Alaska. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Resour. Publ. No. 141. Washington, D.C. 27 pp. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980a. Ambient water quality EPA Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980b. Ambient water quality criteria for arsenic. U.S. Environ. Protection Agency Rep. EPA 440/5-80-021. |