21 3) Snow Goose a) Disturbances and migration It is unknown how snow geese will react to aircraft and traffic disturbances, and whether this will reduce feeding time, migration survival, and breeding success. b) Water pollution impacts Effects on North Slope snow goose populations from changes in water quality of tundra ponds have not been studied adequately. c) Displacement habitat Research is needed to determine whether alternative staging habitat exists. 4) Mammalian Predators - brown bear, polar bear, gray wolf, and wolverine a) Human interactions The effects of human activity on predators must be addressed; methods for minimizing impacts also must be devised. b) Relations to PCH The relations of predator and scavenger populations to the PCH must be understood better. 5) Arctic Fishes Sources of fresh water for development needs have not been adequately addressed; research will be needed to determine effects of water use and gravel mining on overwintering fish habitat once these sources are determined. b) Causeways and intake pipes The effects of causeways and seawater intake pipes on anadromous fish populations must be determined. 6) Air Quality Research is needed to determine the effects of ANWR development on air quality, both in the 1002 area and throughout the entire Arctic region. 7) Cumulative and Long-term Effects The cumulative and long-term effects of development on the fish, wildlife, and environmental values of the Arctic region must be addressed before further development occurs. OTHER OPTIONS Interior recommended Alternative A, full leasing, from a selection of 4 other options: B) limited leasing, C) further exploration, D) no action, and E) Wilderness designation. If 22 Congress chooses to develop ANWR, other options such as limited leasing and further exploration prior to leasing may be wiser given what little is known about ANWR's ecology and oil deposits. Under limited leasing, the southeastern section of the 1002 area would not be subject to development (Figure 4). This area contains most of the core calving area of the PCH, important snow goose staging grounds, and prime habitat for a small, isolated population of approximately 80 muskoxen. Other wildlife such as brown bears, gray wolves, and wolverines that are dependent upon these species also exist in this area. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the agency that deals with Alaska fish and wildlife, suggests prohibition of development on the PCH calving grounds (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1987). Moreover, according to Interior's Final Report, Alternative B, limited leasing, would yield a mean estimate of 2.4 billion barrels of economically recoverable oil. This is only 800 million barrels less than the mean estimate for full leasing, 3.2 billion barrels. Using the current level of United States oil consumption per day, 16 million barrels (Interior Final Report, 1987), 800 million barrels amounts to a 50 day supply of oil. Critics of the Interior analysis point out that the majority of the PCH calving grounds, important snow goose staging habitat, a herd of 80 muskoxen, and wildlife dependent upon these species would all be risked for less than a two month supply of oil. Alternative C, which would have mandated further exploration before leasing, also could have been recommended by DOI. This alternative would provide an opportunity to obtain more detailed information about the coastal plain's probable oil deposits. Such information would provide for a more informed decision as to where significant deposits may exist. Interior is opposed to both limited leasing and further exploration before leasing. DOI feels the area's wildlife will not be affected severely, and therefore believes the limited leasing plan designed to protect the important wildlife habitats in the southeastern section of the 1002 area would be unnecessary. The Department considers the risks to fish and wildlife not great enough to justify the chances of "forgoing the potential for billions of barrels of oil." Further exploration prior to leasing also was rejected by Interior. without authorization for a leasing program, DOI maintains that the private sector would not invest the financial resources needed to completely explore the 1002 area. Interior believes additional exploration will occur only if the oil industry is assured that development also will be authorized. 23 Critics of the Interior analysis contend that the alternatives analyzed by DOI do not represent the full spectrum of possibilities that should have been considered for ANWR; a decision of this magnitude demands analysis of a wider range of alternatives. Additional alternatives or some combination of the five options considered would have provided a better range of options from which to choose. 24 LITERATURE CITED Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1987. 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