Minke whales breed in temperate or subtropical waters (Dohl et al., 1981). Breeding occurs throughout the year, with peaks in January and June ( Leatherwood et al., 1982). Gestation lasts about 10 months, and parturition occurs in winter and spring (Stewart and Leatherwood, 1985). Although females apparently may calve every year, a 2-year interval is more typical (Mitchell, 1978; Leatherwood et al., 1982).

In the North Pacific, minke whales prey mainly on euphausiids and copepods, but also feed on schooling fishes such as Pacific sandlance, northern anchovy, and squid (Mitchell, 1978; Leatherwood et al., 1982; Stewart and Leatherwood, 1985; Horwood 1990).

This discussion summarizes and incorporates by reference descriptions in USDOI, MMS (1991a; 1990a; and 1985c). The northern fur seal population is estimated to be about 1.2 million (Fowler, 1985a), with about 982,000 seals (approximately 70% of the world population) comprising the Pribilof Islands population (Antonelis et al, as cited by Loughlin, 1993). About 4,000 are associated with San Miguel Island off Santa Barbara, California, and a small group breeds on Bogoslof Island (Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge) in the Aleutians. Fur seals are highly migratory and widely dispersed during the nonbreeding season (November to May or June) in pelagic waters of the North Pacific from the southern Bering Sea south to California. Most adults spend the remainder of the year on the Pribilof Islands or foraging in the vicinity. Spring migrants proceed to the Bering Sea and Pribilofs from April to mid-June by way of Unimak and adjacent passes following the shelf break around the Gulf of Alaska or crossing the gulf more directly from the Pacific Northwest and Canada. Nursing females typically forage over the OCS and slope within 160 km of the islands but also as far as 400 km away (Harry and Hartley, 1981). Fall migrants may re-enter the North Pacific through various Aleutian passes (Ragen and Dayton, 1990). As a result of a population decline that began in the 1950's (Fowler, 1985a), this species has been designated as depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act.

Four seal species in Alaska (spotted, ribbon, bearded, ringed) are ice-associated for much or all of the year. Although the general range of all four species extends from the Beaufort Sea to the southeastern Bering Sea, spotted and ribbon seals are concentrated in the Bering Sea, while the majority of bearded and ringed seals occupy areas farther north. Estimated populations of these seals in the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort area are spotted, 250,000; ribbon 110,000; bearded 300,000; ringed, 1.5 million (Burns, Frost, and Lowry, 1985a; Lentfer, 1988). Winter/spring spotted seal densities are greatest east of the Pribilof Islands, while ribbon seals are most numerous west of the Pribilofs and St. Matthew Island. Bearded seal densities are greatest in the area south of St. Lawrence Island and east of St. Matthew, while ringed seals are abundant in shorefast-ice areas of the Chukchi and northern Bering Seas. All four breed and give birth in the spring--spotted and ribbon in the ice front; bearded in drifting pack ice; and ringed seals mainly on shorefast ice, although they also are widespread throughout the pack ice. Substantial numbers of bearded seals, a well as spotted seals, migrate between Bering Sea wintering areas and Chukchi Sea summer range. In summer, ringed and most bearded seals remain ice associated in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, spotted seals occupy coastal areas primarily in the Bering and Chukchi Seas, and ribbon seals become pelagic in the Bering Sea. Some bearded seals occupy open-water areas in the Bering and Chukchi Seas in the summer. Spotted seals in the Chukchi are especially abundant in Kotzebue Sound and at several sites from Kasegaluk Lagoon to Peard Bay (Alaska Maritime

National Wildlife Refuge). Descriptions of ice seals contained in the USDOI, MMS, 1990a and 1991a and b provide additional information on these species.

3) Harbor Seal

Along the west coast of North America, the range of the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) extends from Alaska south to Baja California. The harbor seal is a year-round resident of the Alaskan/Pacific coasts, hauling out on islands, estuaries, secluded beaches, and offshore rocks along the length of the coastline (Bonnell, Pierson, and Farrens, 1983; Hanan, Scholl, and Diamond, 1988). Based on censuses performed from 1982 to 1986, the harbor seal population in California appears to be stable. The NMFS estimates that the population in Oregon has increased by 7 percent annually since 1977 and about 10 percent annually in Washington since 1976 (USDOC, NOAA, 1987b).

Harbor seals are relatively sedentary residents throughout coastal Alaska south and east of Kuskokwim Bay including the Pribilof Islands, Aleutian Islands, and the Gulf of Alaska. Typically, they are distributed in small groups (25-150); but large concentrations of 1,000 or more occur in the Kuskokwim Bay area, along the north side of the Alaska Peninsula, in the Kodiak Archipelago, and scattered localities in the northern Gulf of Alaska (Hoover, 1988). Data are inadequate to determine the population status of harbor seals in most areas. Since the late 1970's, surveys indicate that harbor seal numbers have declined dramatically in the western Gulf of Alaska, including the Kodiak area and Prince William Sound (Pitcher 1990; Loughlin 1992) along the north shore of the Alaska Peninsula (Pitcher, 1986) and a dramatic decrease of as much as 75 percent in 6 years at Tugidak Island (near Kodiak Island, Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge), once one of the world's largest concentration (Pitcher, 1990). The 1992 surveys in the Gulf of Alaska and Prince William Sound reported about 7,800 seals (Loughlin 1992). The mean estimate of harbor seals in Alaska (excluding the Aleutian Islands) during 1991 to 1993 surveys was about 43,000 animals (Loughlin 1994). Harbor seals generally stay within 20 km of shore and are not likely to disperse more than 2,000 km unless to avoid advancing pack ice in northern parts of the range. Descriptions of the harbor seal contained in USDOI, MMS, 1990a and 1985c provide additional information on this species.

In Alaska, the Pacific walrus ranges from the Beaufort Sea to the southeastern Bering Sea. A large proportion of the estimated 201,000 North Pacific walruses migrate north and south with the seasonal pack ice (Burns, Frost, and Lowry, 1985; Fay, 1982; Fay et al., 1984; Fay, Kelly, and Sease, 1986; Seagars, 1992). During the winter months (January-March), most walruses occur in the drifting pack ice west and southwest of St. Lawrence Island and in the Bristol Bay area. Mating occurs during this period, primarily in these two areas (Fay, Ray, and Kibal'chich, 1984). Beginning in April, nearly all pregnant females and those with young (perhaps 150,000 or more) move north with the receding pack ice, leaving behind substantial numbers of adult and subadult males (Fay, 1982). Most calves are born during the northward migration. By late June, the migrants have passed through the Bering Strait to occupy the area for the strait west to Wrangel Island and north to the northeastern Chukchi Sea and western Beaufort Sea. Adult and subadult males that remain in the Bering Sea in summer most consistently haul out at several sites in the northern Bristol Bay (Walrus Islands State Game Sanctuary) and St. Matthew Island (Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge) areas. Significant numbers may summer between St. Lawrence Island and the Bering Strait (Fay et al., 1984). Recent trends in several population parameters suggest that the Pacific walrus population may experience a downward trend in the foreseeable future (Burns, Frost, and Lowry, 1985). Descriptions of the walrus contained in USDOI, MMS, 1990a and 1991a and b provide additional information on this species.

In Alaska, sea otters have reoccupied most of their pre-exploitation range. They probably are at or near carrying capacity of the environment throughout the Aleutian Islands and east to Prince William Sound; repopulation has been less complete south of Prince William Sound, and few otters survive in the Pribilof Islands. Recent estimates (Riedman and Estes, 1990) place the Alaskan population at about 150,000 otters, with the largest numbers in the Aleutians (about 74,000) and along the Alaska Peninsula (about 37,000). Pods of 100 animals are not uncommon in these areas, and one containing over 1,000 has been observed. An estimated 6,000 otters occupy the Kodiak Island area, 3,500 in the Kenai Peninsula-Cook Inlet area, 6,000 in Prince William Sound, and 24,000 in Southeast Alaska. They generally are nonmigratory, moving relatively short distances between breeding and foraging areas, although some males are known to have traveled at least 100 km.

Descriptions of the sea otter contained in USDOI, MMS, 1984b, 1985c, and 1991a provide additional information on this species.

Polar bears are most abundant where seals are common in drifting pack ice or shorefast ice in winter, near the pack-ice edge in summer, and along new ice and leads in the fall. They regularly occur only as far south as the Bering Strait and St. Lawrence Island (Lentfer, 1972). In both the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, bears follow the receding pack-ice edge northward in spring and early summer and southward as ice forms in the fall. North to south migration of Chukchi Sea bears are especially extensive (Amstrup and DeMaster, 1988). Bears are most abundant along the coast in years when winds drive ice near shore. Polar bears usually are quite widely dispersed in the pack ice, but relatively high densities have been observed in favorable foraging habitat (seal concentrated) such as where new ice has formed along leads and in flaw zones (Amstrup, pers. comm., 1990). Some areas of high fall density have been observed along the Chukchi Coast. Currently, the most accepted estimate for the total Alaskan population is 3,000 to 5,000 individuals with perhaps 2,000 occurring in the Beaufort Sea (Amstrup., 1986). Most maternity dens are located on land near the coast or on offshore islands (Lentfer and Hensel, 1980; Amstrup, 1986). Many of the onshore coastal denning locations and habitats along the coast of the Beaufort Sea have been identified by subsistence hunters from the villages of Nuiqsut and Kaktovik (USDOI, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, 1996). Wrangel Island is an important denning area in the western Chukchi Sea. Descriptions of the polar bear contained in USDOI, MMS, 1990a, 1990c, and 1991a provide additional information on this species.

CARIBOU: Four caribou herds use coastal habitats adjacent to potential Beaufort and Chukchi Sea sale areas. The Western Arctic Herd (WAH), currently numbering over 415,000 animals (Valkenburg et al, 1993), has grown substantially over the past decade. Its range in northwestern Alaska extends from the Colville River to the Chukchi Sea and from the Kobuk River north to the Beaufort Sea. The range of the Porcupine Caribou Herd (PCH), estimated to number about 178,000 to 180,000 animals (Whitten, 1992), extends between the Beaufort Sea and the Brooks Range from the Canning River in Alaska eastward through the northern Yukon and portions of the Northwest Territories in Canada. The Central Arctic Herd (CAH) ranges from the Beaufort Sea south into the Brooks Range between the Canning and Itkillik Rivers. The most recent population estimate for this herd is 23,000 animals (Abbott 1993). The Teshekpuk Lake Herd (TLH), estimated to number from 16,000 to 17,000 animals (Abbott 1992), calves and winters in the vicinity of Teshekpuk Lake and Cape Halkett adjacent to Harrison Bay.

The main calving area for the WAH is located on the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, extending south from the Utukok River uplands area to the Colville River. The PCH calving range encompasses an area along the Beaufort Sea coast from the Canning River in Alaska to the Babbage River in Canada and south to the northern foothills of the Brooks Range. Major concentrations of calving cows occur within an area bounded by the Canning and Sadlerochit Rivers between Camden Bay and the Sadlerochit Mountains. Most of the CAH recently has calved within 30 km of the Beaufort Sea, including the Prudhoe Bay area. Calving generally takes place from late May to late June.

During the postcalving period in July and August, caribou may aggregate in masses exceeding 50,000 animals. Cow/calf groups are most sensitive to disturbance during this period. During the summer months, caribou use exposed coastal habitats such as sand bars, spits, river deltas, and accessible barrier islands for relief from biting insects. Most Alaskan caribou migrate to overwintering areas in the Brooks Range, often following well-defined routes, although a substantial proportion of the WAH also overwinters in Chukchi coastal habitats.

Descriptions of caribou contained in the USDOI, MMS (1990c; and 1991a) provide additional information on this species.

The arctic peregrine falcon was removed from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife on October 5, 1994 (59 FR 50796); however, the FWS is required to monitor this species for 5 years, during which period it will be have the same status as a candidate species. Based on 1993 surveys, the population of arctic peregrine falcons now stands at about 200 to 250 pairs and is increasing; productivity from 1980 to 1992 varied between 1.3 to 2.0 young per pair, sufficient to support annual recruitment into the breeding population of about 12 percent (Ambrose, pers. comm., 1995; unpublished FWS data, Fairbanks, Alaska). The population of American peregrine falcons in Alaska is estimated at about 225 to 250 pairs, while in California 125 pairs are estimated (Ambrose, pers. comm., 1995). Beginning in the late 1940's, the use of the organochlorine pesticides greatly affected peregrine falcons, causing birds to lay thin-shelled eggs that often failed to hatch and consequently lowered reproduction. In Alaska, the population of arctic peregrine falcons declined to approximately 30 percent of historical levels.

Endangered American peregrine falcons nest on cliffs in interior Alaska, south of the Seward Peninsula and Brooks Range. Arctic peregrine falcons nest in tundra regions of Alaska, north of the Brooks Range and on the seward Peninsula. Nest sites closest to the coast occur on shoreline cliffs from Norton Sound north to Cape Lisburne. On the North Slope, nesting sites nearest the coast occur about 20 miles inland (Ambrose, pers. comm., 1991). There are no known active nest sites along the coast between Barrow and Demarcation Point. Peregrine falcons usually are present in Alaska from about mid-April to mid-September. Egg laying begins about the first week of May in interior Alaska and mid-May on the North Slope. The young fledge about the end of July in the interior, and mid-August on the North Slope (USDOI, FWS, 1982a). Immature arctic peregrines are known to use northern Alaskan coastal habitats east of the Colville River on a transient basis from mid-August to mid-September (USDOI, MMS, 1984b).

Data regarding the migration routes of Alaskan peregrines are limited; however, it appears that falcons from the North Slope and eastern interior generally follow the central flyway, while those from the western interior follow the Pacific flyway. Arctic and American peregrine falcons winter in Latin America from September to April (USDOI, FWS, 1982a). Arctic and American peregrines probably occur in the Gulf of Alaska area only irregularly during migration (USDOI, FWS, 1982a). Peregrines that occur along the California coast probably are year-round residents, although some winter movements may occur. The mouths of most major rivers and estuaries in northern California are important foraging areas (USDOI, FWS, 1982a).

Peregrine falcons feed mostly on birds; prey remains at coastal nest sites in Alaska indicated that shorebirds, gulls, seabirds, waterfowl, and various small land birds were taken (Wright, 1987).

The short-tailed albatross once was abundant and widespread in the North Pacific, including coastal areas from Alaska to Baja California. Activities of feather hunters on the nesting grounds reduced the species to near extinction (Hasegawa and DeGange, 1982). Since their rediscovery as a breeding species on Torishima Island (580 km south of Tokyo, Japan) in the early 1950's, and Minami-kojima Island (southern Ryukyu Islands south of Kyushu) in 1987, the short-tailed albatross has staged a slow comeback and now number approximately 500 individuals present on Torishima during the breeding season, and 75 on Minami-kojima (Hasegawa, pers. comm., 1988; Sherburne, 1993). Juvenile and immature birds, representing a substantial proportion of the population, remain at sea during the breeding season, thus the total population probably numbers well over 600.

From observations and band recoveries during the last 20 years, it appears that the short-tailed albatross still occurs over much of its original range but in greatly reduced numbers. Birds begin arriving at the breeding island, Torishima, in early October. Failed breeders and nonbreeders depart Torishima in winter and spring. Successful breeders and fledglings depart to the northeast towards the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands in late spring and early summer and east and south along the west coast of North America as far as Baja, Mexico (Palmer, 1976). Individuals probably scatter widely over the North Pacific but may concentrate in nutrient-rich waters, feeding on squid that come to the surface at night as well as fish and crustaceans (Hasegawa and DeGange, 1982).

Spectacled eiders breed discontinuously, and in most areas sparingly, along the coast of Alaska from Bristol Bay north to Barrow and east almost to the Canadian border and along the Siberian coast from the Chukotsk Peninsula to the Yana Delta. An estimated 1,700 to 3,000 pairs of spectacled eiders have nested recently (1990-1992) on the Yukon-Kuskokwim (Y-K) Delta (Stehn, Wege, and Walters, 1992); this represents a 94to 98-percent decline from the early 1970's. Declines have been substantial on the arctic slope (e.g., 80% at Prudhoe Bay 1981-1991); Native elders from Wainwright and Barrow residents have observed evidence of local population declines elsewhere on the Arctic slope (USDOI, FWS, 1994; Suydam, 1996, pers. comm.). Up to a few thousand pairs may nest on the slope (Warnock and Troy, 1992; 58 FR 27474). Declines also have been reported on the Seward Peninsula and at St. Lawrence Island (Kessel, 1989). Recent estimates from Siberia are lacking, but surveys in the 1960's indicated that numbers were dwindling at that time on the Indigirka Delta (Dau and Kistchinski, 1977).

Few spectacled eiders nest more than 20 km inland on the Y-K Delta, but in the Arctic may occupy areas farther inland (20-120 km) because coastal dependency is likely to less in a region where the sea is frozen