Mobilization of the Peasantry

It was

Land Reform in India was generally a highly legalistic process. administered by the Revenue Departments by adding special assistants where needed. The initiation of land reform in a village according to law often. required public proclamation "to the beat of the drum." Land reform was more conferred on than sought by, the peasantry.

Much of the legislation was designed by the State government fairly directly. The cultivator groups were relatively inactive. Although support of peasantry was sought there is little doubt that initiative lay with the Central and State Governments.

As indicated elsewhere, cooperatives have been encouraged as the appropriate organizational form for marketing and credit. Joint farming societies have been favored but their success has not been notable.

Participatory democracy was encouraged by adaptation of traditional village councils through "panchayati raj." This system of local government, which now covers 98 percent of the population, is involved in the implementation of a number of programs. It represents an important feature of democratic decentralization and local decisionmaking.

A significant factor in the pace of implementation of land reform was the rigid hierarchial structure frozen around the caste system. The Gandhian movement, which drew attention particularly to the position of the harijan, contained strong elements of democratic socialism. Only government was strong enough to crack the caste barriers to cooperation and social mobility--two social requirements for the success of economic programs. The traditional struggle among interests of landlord, tenant, and laborers was reinforced by caste roles. Factions, communities, castes, language and families made national peasant unions

irrelevant to

/adoption and implementation of reform measures. Policies were articulated by the All-India Congress Committee, integrated into the national development plans by Congress dominated central government and initiated by

State governments most of which initially at least were Congress.

In India, land reform was an administrative matter rather than
Its procedures were constitutional, democratic,

a peasant revolution.

bureaucratic and slow.

Politics of Implementation

Resistance

The politics of land reform in India were subsumed by the politics of independence, democratic socialism, and economic egalitarianism. by landlords, zamindari, princes, and others with threatened economic and social interests did not take the form of national platforms. Communists have provided the most effective political resistance but obviously not on behalf of large landlords.

Land reform was a natural dimension of Gandhiji's economic and social philosophy which held little admiration for industrialization and sought general uplift of the rural masses. Perhaps of even greater importance

than either Gandhiji or Nehru in the political sphere is the apolitical populism of Acharya Vinoba Bhave.

Bhave's efforts to assemble land donations

for distribution to the landless probably encouraged the implementation of land reform. Although the collections themselves were not spectacular the movement has enhanced public awareness of the problems of the landless.

The effects of the several land reform programs in India, if they are identifiable at all, are still emerging. The progress undoubtedly has been slower than anticipated, as indicated by the emphasis placed

on speeding up implementation in the Fourth Five Year Plan.

Land Tenure Structure

Despite widely recognized shortfalls in the implementation of intended land tenure reforms, substantial changes have taken place. These changes should be appropriately acknowledged.

The zamindari, jagirdari, inami tenures at the beginning of the reform period covered 40 percent of India. During the first three Five Year Plans

progress has been made in all areas.

About 20 million tenants of former

intermediaries were placed in direct relation to the state.

In the ryotwari areas--the other 60 percent of India--much of the land was cultivated by tenants and sharecroppers under insecure tenure and high rent often payable to absentee landlords. Measures were taken to reduce tenure insecurity, lower rents, and encourage ownership.

In most states maximum legal rent is fixed at 1/4 of the produce or less and provision for purchase is granted. Evasion of these rent maxima are recognized but against absentee landlords, at least, there is some evidence the controls are effective. 1/ Bargaining positions of tenants have improved and many of the exploitive practices have declined. In the fact of rising population even to have maintained the position of tenants may have been an accomplishment of the reforms.

1/ Department of Economics, Bombay University, Evaluation of Land Reforms, a draft report, Vol. 1, p. 277.

An unfortunate feature of Indian data on land tenure is its noncomparability over time. 1/ According to the National Sample Survey Reports the area under tenancy declined from 20 percent to 12 percent between the 8th and 16th Rounds (1955 to 1960). 2/ This tenurial change should not be interpreted necessarily as an improvement either by egalitarian or productivity criteria. Many former landlords have taken up personal cultivation, some with laborers who were former tenants. It does mean that rent controls are now relevant to

a relatively small proportion of the cultivators. 3/ Tenancy where it exists (e.g., "batai" in UP) would not be identified as such hence not subject to control. The tenancy reforms also sought to convert tenants into owners. According to the National Development Council about 3 million tenants and sub-tenants have acquired ownership of more than 7 million acres as follows:

1/ Thorner, David and Alice. Agrarian Revolution by Census Definition Land and Labour in India, Bombay Asia Pub House, 1962. Census underestimated tenancy by including many forms of tenancy under ownership.

2/ Desai, V.R.M. (ed.) Strategy of Food and Agriculture, p. 143.

3/ Census of 1961 showed 76 percent owner cultivators, 15 percent part owners and 8 percent pure tenants. See: Land Reforms Implementation Comm., National Development Council. Implementation of Land Reforms. Planning Comm., 1966, p. 278.