there will be about 38 million pupils in public schools and over 6 million more in nonpublic schools in 1961-62, for whom over 146,000 qualified school librarians will be needed, if standards are to be met.

The standards for size of book collections are: Minimum size of the collections in schools having 200 to 999 students, 6,000 to 10,000 books; 1,000 or more students, 10 books per student. The standard "10 books per pupil" can be

These ratios of books per pupil in centralized libraries indicate that only about 50 percent of the book stock recommended by the standards is available in centralized school libraries. Recent emphasis on the use of many materials in elementary and secondary education has caused greatly increased demands on school libraries. In many schools, the libraries are inadequate to meet the needs of teachers and pupils both in the kinds and quantity of materials required. Meager resources in subject areas discourage teachers from including library materials in teaching, and, as a result, little use is made of these limited school library collections. Because rich and varied resources of materials are essential for a school library to be of real service to instruction, school boards and administrators should give particular attention to achieving the standard for size of school library collections.

The national standards for annual expenditures for regular library books are, in schools having 200 to 249 students, at least $1,000 to $1,500. In schools having 250 or more students, at least $4 to $6 per student. (These figures do not include encyclopedias, unabridged dictionaries, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, or professional materials for teachers.) Expenditures per pupil for books in the centralized libraries of the school of the 1958-59 survey, as compared with the standards, are as follows:

A number of public schools throughout the country noted for strong programs of instruction are meeting, or exceeding, the quantitative standard for annual expenditures for library books, but, as evidenced by the average expenditures per pupil, most schools are spending far below the national standard. Communities and school boards interested in achieving excellent schools should be informed of these facts.

An important chapter of "Standards for School Library Programs" deals with school library supervisors. The standards recommend at least two school library supervisors in every State department of education, and "the services and facilities for school library supervision" in school systems having 5 to 7 or more schools with enrollments of 200 or more students. The status study, "State Department of Education Responsibilities for School Libraries," showed that only a little more than 50 percent of the State departments of education employed school library supervisors, and that some States have very few or no school library supervisors for local school districts. Since State and local school library supervisors, in cooperation with curriculum directors, can effectively relate library materials to instructional programs, there is great need for extending school library supervision. The lack of State and local school library super

vision in some States and school districts certainly has direct bearing on the differences between national standards and existing conditions in school li. braries. School library service depends not only on the personnel, resources, quarters, and support for libraries made available in our schools, but on the leadership provided by State and local boards of education for developing school library programs of genuine value to education.

In every local school and school system, administrators, librarians, and teachers should evaluate existing school library services according to the new standards, and formulate plans for reaching, by gradual steps, the quality of school library programs recommended by these standards.

How Do THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL LIBRARY SUPPLEMENT AND COMPLEMENT EACH OTHER IN PROVIDING SERVICES FOR CHILDREN, YOUTH, AND YOUNG ADULTS? 1

1

Mary Helen Mahar, specialist for school and children's libraries, Library Services Branch, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

If you have reviewed the literature on public library-public school relationships, you know that the same principles on this subject have been enunciated many times, and supported by both school and public librarians, school administrators, and public library boards of trustees, in publications, policy statements, and official committee reports of State and national organizations. Nevertheless, this relationship and its ramifications remain persistent issues. As with all principles, practice takes time to catch up, and new problems arise which revive the need for renewed discussion and exploration of the principles. As a starting point, let us consider a new policy statement which briefly states these accepted principles in relation to current problems in school and public library relationships. This policy statement was developed by the Committee on School Library Services of the Study Commission, Council of Chief State School Officers. The study commission is composed of designated representatives from State departments of education, and is concerned with developing policy statements in various areas of State department of education responsibilities. The policy statement was approved and published by the Council of Chief State School Officers. It is written from the point of view of the State department of education, and does not attempt to define responsibilities of State library agencies. However, it is a useful summary statement:

"The State department of education should develop cooperative relationships with public libraries :

"State departments of education and State library agencies, especially when legally separate organizations, have been troubled by contradictions in philosophy concerning service to school libraries and have expressed the need for clear principles in this area of administration.

"The following principles apply:

"(a) The school library serves the school, and the public library serves the community. Teachers and pupils are members of both the school and the community.

"(b) Public library service including service from State, regional, county, and community libraries—may supplement but never supplant the school library. Service which replaces the library impedes the development of school libraries to the detriment of service to teachers and pupils and tends to separate library materials from instructional programs.

"(c) The school has the primary responsibility for instruction and guidance of children and youth in the community in the use of libraries. The program of library instruction, directed by the school librarians, has the broad purposes of teaching library skills adaptable to all types of libraries and for encouraging pupils to use libraries for continuing self-education. School librarians, teachers, and public librarians should cooperate in planning instructional programs in the use of libraries for educational and recreational purposes.

1 Paper from "Proceedings of the Eighth Institute_on Public Library Management: Public Library-Public School Relationship," Wisconsin Free Library Commission, Madison, Feb. 27, 1961.

"(d) Cooperative planning in the selection and utilization of materials for children and young people is the responsibility of school administrators, teachers, school librarians, public librarians, and other community leaders concerned with youth.

"These principles apply in urban and rural communities and to both elementary and secondary schools. In urban and other nonrural communities, the recent tremendous increase in the number of students using the resources of community libraries has pointed to the need for cooperative planning by school, college, and public library administrators concerning library services to students within the same geographic areas. In rural communities, school boards, administrators, and school librarians are moving toward the development of school library service from intermediate units under the administration of boards of education.

"State library extension agencies, primarily concerned with public libraries, have gradually withdrawn direct service to schools as their programs have matured and as boards of education have become able to support and administer school libraries. In some States with undeveloped school library programs, direct service from State library extension agencies to schools still exists. However, in these States, the principles of school and public library relations should be applied as soon as possible, and the full responsibility for State-level services to school libraries should be assumed by State departments of education.”

Before we discuss these principles in terms of the complementary and supplementary functions of school libraries and public libraries, let us review briefly the basic reasons for renewed concern with school and public library relationships:

1. New emphasis in teaching methods on the use of many materials, particularly in the areas of science, mathematics, and foreign languages, but in all subject areas;

2. The inability of school libraries-many of them substandard in resources to meet these new demands;

3. The shortage of professional personnel for both school and public libraries to serve rapidly increasing school and community populations;

4. The lack of communication between librarians and governing boards of schools, and public libraries.

The first principle of the policy statement needs examination to point up complementary functions of school and public libraries in providing services for children and youth: "The school library serves the school, and the public library serves the community. Teachers and pupils are members of both the school and the community." Broadly speaking, the school library and the public library serve the educational needs of the schools and the community. When students enter the public library, they do not divest themselves of their status as school pupils; the fact that they are community members entering a community educational institution does not automatically change their interest in fulfilling school assignments. It would be very convenient if we could separate curriculumstimulated requests for library service from other types of motivation in the use of libraries, but curriculum includes not only the three R's and factual information but the reading of modern poetry, fiction, and biographies, acquiring understanding of the problems of modern society, the study of art and art forms, the development of interest and competence in recreational pursuits-like reading, photography, painting, music, and, in general, the education of each child to his full potential. To separate the functions of types of libraries by curricular and noncurricular needs, therefore, is a dubious distinction, and leads only to further confusion. We might solve the problem by simply making school libraries so well stocked and open for such long hours that students would never need to use the public library, but we have acknowledged generally these basic purposes of the school: "Teaching library skills adaptable to all types of libraries and encouraging pupils to use libraries for continuing self-education." What is the basis, therefore, on which we establish the complementary functions of school and public libraries?

First of all, as a library profession, we must acknowledge the fact that the primary responsibility for service to school pupils rests with the school and the school library, and then, as a profession, work with school boards to make it possible for school libraries to meet these responsibilities. The implementation of the new ALA standards for school libraries, in Standards for School Library Programs, needs the support of the whole library profession, just as we expect the whole library profession to lend support to standards for public libraries.

Then we must establish and maintain lines of professional communication between school boards, administrators, teachers, and librarians, on the one hand, and public library boards and librarians on the other, in communities. By such active and purposeful communication in each community we can determine: 1. The educational purposes of the school and community library. 2. The nature of the school library collection, which does not differ in type of material, but in emphasis, from the public library collection.

3. The books and other materials which the school library must provide, and the books and other materials which the public library should provide to serve children and youth of the community. (Duplication may sometimes be necessary and desirable.)

4. The hours which the school library and the public library should be open to serve children and youth, in terms of local conditions, such as accessibility of libraries, and transportation, as well as the changing organization of instruction within schools (see Trump, "Images of the Future," for new concepts in the utilization of staff and organization of instruction in secondary schools).

5. The amount and kind of inservice education in the use of library materials which teachers require.

6. The kind of cooperative program in library instruction and library experiences needed by school pupils.

7. The services which the school library and the public library can provide in professional materials for teachers.

When both school libraries and public libraries meet or exceed their respective national standards, problems in relationships can be solved more readily. Nevertheless, it seems to me that at all times these two educational institutions must work together to implement accepted principles, and to achieve well-rounded school and community library services to children and youth.

Let us examine the principle relating to the program of library instruction for which school librarians, public librarians, and teachers are responsible. Library instruction has both narrow and broad connotations: its first purpose is to teach boys and girls to use libraries and library tools independently. School librarians have for a long time accepted the concept that library instruction should be functionally related to curriculum. A good example of functional library instruction is described in Elsa Berner's book, "Integrating Library Instruction with Classroom Teaching at Plainview Junior High School." To develop such a program, school librarians and teachers work closely together, and public librarians should be included in this cooperative planning.

When classes are embarking on units of study which require instruction in the use of library tools, this instruction should include the use of the public library. During this planning, teachers also learn how to relate instruction and assignments to libraries. At all times, library instruction for both teachers and pupils should be conducted through the school librarian. Unilateral relations between public librarians and teachers which ignore school librarians cause confusion and fail to really solve problems.

When school librarians, public librarians, and teachers develop good relationship, their planning can include the broader aspects of library instructionguiding children and youth to appreciate and enjoy books and libraries, and all the delightful experiences that go with them. These experiences include storytelling, book talks, discussion groups, film showings, recording hours, exhibits, which school and public librarians, and teachers, can plan together-sometimes including other community agencies. For example, the work of social service agencies with children and youth could be greatly assisted by cooperative planning with school and public librarians on the provisions of constructive inschool and out-of-school library activities.

Of utmost importance in developing cooperative relationships among community agencies for service to children and youth are the attitudes which we develop toward our young people. All librarians are educators, and this connotation of librarianship means that we have a responsibility to help boys and girls change for the better. Adolescents are sometimes unruly and indifferent to adult standards of behavior. In great numbers, and for long hours, they can tax our patience. School librarians, for many years, often have served from 300 to 500 school pupils daily in the library. In our understaffed school libraries, they have worked exceedingly hard, and at great cost to nervous energy, to guide and supervise the individual library activities of all these pupils. Now public librarians are experiencing the hard work of dealing with many adolescents at the same time. We must remember, however, that most young people

are idealistic and anxious to be fine human beings, although they often conceal these aims from adults. If we recognize the better motives of young people, and build on their idealism, we can help them to become good citizens. We must also remember that while we are working with young people they are also developing atitudes toward us. In a few short years, these students will be the voters who determine support for libraries, and their experiences with librarians will influence their decisions. If adults in the community now see us working with good will for their children even under great handicaps, they will be more disposed toward providing the staff, resources, and facilities we need to give good library service to all our children and youth.

The school library and the public library should function according to the basic and accepted principles of service to children and youth, and in every community these principles must be related to local needs and conditions. When school and public library personnel plan and work cooperatively for service to children and youth, these accepted principles can be put into practice in any and every community-to achieve our highest purposes.

HOW DO THE NEW STANDARDS AFFECT THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES?1 The basic principle of the school library is that it makes possible through the use of a wide variety of materials the education of the individual to the best of his ability, and the realization of his potential as a member of society. This concept of education is now new; it is, for example, accepted generally in our institutions of higher education. The higher a student goes, the more freedom he has in the use of library resources to educate himself. This tradition is firmly rooted in the colleges and universities of New England, as well as all over the United States and Europe, and it is so universally acknowledged that no one questions it, or even thinks of it as a question, in higher education. Libraries in elementary and secondary schools are based on this same philosophy; their growth has been slow because we have not fully recognized the needs of our children and youth as individuals in the process of instruction.

Our philosophy of American education is clearly stated in "General Education in a Free Society": We have two obligations: (1) To prepare our boys and girls for citizenship in a free and democratic society, (2) to point the way for peaceful change through our existing institutions. In our earnestness to fulfill our responsibilities in American education, we have attempted to teach every pupil the same fact at the same time from the same book, in the same grade, and we have encountered some trouble in this system. If our pupils do not learn by this method, we try remedial teaching. If they learn too fast we let them read another book, as a kind of reward.

In our high schools, we have behavior problems and dropouts, often related to reading difficulties, and we have many gifted students whose potentialities are lost in frustration and boredom, because the books they are using are not sufficiently stimulating to capture their many interests. The library in the school is regarded as a luxury, rather than a necessity, and we have a hard time obtaining support for luxuries because schools are so very expensive, anyway.

The use of the school library by teachers and pupils is an educational method. intrinsic to the realization of the best in every student through education. It is basic to instruction, and is itself a part of instruction. It fulfills the educational philosophy of the individual school, which, as we all know, also carries out the community's unique purposes of education for its young people. School libraries become basic to instruction when the following conditions operate: 1. Responsibility for school libraries is shared by communities, boards of education, administrators, supervisors, teachers, and librarians. 2. The school administrator believes in, and supports through administrative policy, the use of school libraries in the instructional program. 3. Teachers and librarians select together school library materials, and place together for their use, for the education of individuals in terms of their needs.

1 New Hampshire State Department of Education, and American Association of School Librarians. "Conference on School Libraries-A Pilot Program," May 6, 1960. by Miss Mary Helen Mahar. School and Children's Libraries Specialist, U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.