being very much reduced. So that there is marked difference in range. Mr. DOLLIVER. Right at that point, by the word "neutron" do you mean it is neutral, has no effect? Dr. BUGHER. Has no charge; that is right. Mr. DOLLIVER. Has none of the effects attributable to gamma and alpha and beta rays? Dr. BUGHER. All of these radiations have certain things in common. They all produce ionization. That is to say, they cause disintegration of the molecules of tissue and of water with the production of charged molecules, so we call them ionizing radiations. Although the physical properties of the radiations differ very markedly, their biological results are essentially similar, so we tend to group them all together here. Mr. DOLLIVER. I am afraid I interrupted your train of thought there, Doctor. Dr. BUGHER. No, sir; that was a very helpful question. Mr. DOLLIVER. Now, to go a little further afield than that, we are all of us familiar with certain natural oscillations and waves. The sound waves, we know, for example, are oscillations of "circumambient air" as Mr. Shakespeare once said. We know about the radiation of light which we enjoy with sight. Then there are what we call radio radiations and in the radio range there are many variations of speed and wavelength. Is there among scientists a grouping of all these various radiations that are natural phenomena, or do they separate them out into their various fields and consider them totally unrelated? Dr. BUGHER. In ordinary discussions I think one tends to speak of them as though they were unrelated, but in fact one can regard electromagnetic radiations such as light and radio waves as a continuous system or a continuous gradation of change of wavelength from the very long radio waves, which may be measured in hundreds of yards in wavelength, through visible light, which is only a very small portion of this spectrum where the dimensions of the waves are minute fractions of a millimeter, measured in millionths of a millimeter, actually, all through the ultravioet range which is not visible but still shorter in wavelength, to the X-ray, which is still shorter, and finally to these high-energy gamma radiations where the wavelength is very short, indeed. Mr. DOLLIVER. There is a progression, then, from the visible light and below the visible light in the infrared rays on clear up to the radiation received from radioactive materials? Dr. BUGHER. Yes, sir; that is true. Mr. DOLLIVER. Does radium come into that spectrum somewhere? Dr. BUGHER. Radium gives off three different kinds of radiation from the same atom. The gamma radiation comes off, which I mentioned. From time to time the radium atom extrudes, shoots off, alpha particles, which are the heavy helium nuclei of which I spoke. And also from time to time the atom emits beta particles. So that from the spontaneous radioactivity of radium three different types of radiation result. Mr. DOLLIVER. But they are in the spectrum you referred to? Mr. DOLLIVER. Now you said something about the care or solicitude which your division of the Atomic Energy Commission, the Division of Biology and Medicine, has with respect to the handling of atomic materials from the very time it is mined until it is finally disposed of. There are mineral resources from which fissionable materials are obtained, which are scattered over the earth pretty generally; is that right? Dr. BUGHER. Yes, sir. Mr. DOLLIVER. Does that material in its natural state have the same results with respect to the production of cancerous tissue, as it would in the refined state? Dr. BUGHER. We are speaking really of uranium. Mr. DOLLIVER. That is right. Dr. BUGHER. And the materials here. Mr. DOLLIVER. Yes. Dr. BUGHER. The natural occurring uranium is radioactive partly due to the fact that it breaks down within itself to radium, so that the natural uranium therefore always carries a certain degree of radioactivity, which is very low. Naturally, if one concentrates the radium the material is more active than it was in the beginning, but pure uranium is not in itself very markedly radioactive. There is a spontaneous activity there, but most of the activity of natural uranium comes from the contained radium. Mr. DOLLIVER. In other words, in its natural state it does not present a health hazard to any appreciable degree? Dr. BUGHER. I think we do feel that it must be regarded to have a health hazard from two aspects. One is the contained radium which I mentioned; and the other is that uranium is itself a chemically toxic material entirely apart from the question of radiation. So that we do not like to see people acquiring any appreciable amount of uranium, even though the danger from radiation itself would not be very great. But the material is chemically toxic. Mr. DOLLIVER. You mentioned the fact, too, that some of these materials, and I think you mentioned plutonium, did not occur naturally on the earth. Has science been able to determine whether it exists anywhere in the universe; that is, in the solar system or otherwise? Dr. BUGHER. So far as I know I do not believe that the spectroscopic study of stars has disclosed any of these transuranic elements, the ones that are beyond our level of uranium. It may be that some of my associates would have more specific information on that, but I have never seen any note of the recognition of these elements in the stars. Mr. DOLLIVER. What brought that question to my mind was the fact that helium was first discovered on the sun before it was found on the earth. Is that correct? Dr. BUGHER. Yes. These special elements are all unstable, so that they tend to disintegrate spontaneously over a period of many years. Mr. DOLLIVER. There may have been a time when they did exist for short periods, short intervals, and were transmuted into other forms, just as is done in your operations in refining uranium? Dr. BUGHER. Yes, I should think so. Mr. DOLLIVER. Thank you, Mr. Chairman. The CHAIRMAN. Mr. Carlyle? Mr. CARLYLE. Doctor, the investigation in which you and your associates are now engaged is really pioneer work; is it not? Dr. BUGHER. Yes, sir. Mr. CARLYLE. Is there any part of this particular study in which you are now engaged that has received any consideration at all prior to the atomic age? Dr. BUGHER. Yes, indeed so. If we think back, radium itself has been available medically for many years now. Much of the knowledge of our problems of toxicity is really derived from this long experience with radium. But until the atomic period, you might say, did arise we had no other source of radiation except radium, X-ray tubes, and for a short period of time things produced by cyclotrons. I am lumping those in with the atomic period, you might say. Mr. CARLYLE. So then this particular study extends only over a very few years? Dr. BUGHER. Yes, sir. Mr. CARLYLE. Now, during that length of time do you feel encouraged as to the progress that is being made? Dr. BUGHER. Yes; very much so. I think that as these other gentlemen will describe their programs one will see that in a comparatively few years we have made very substantial strides. The problem always is not to be so entranced with the progression and advancement of the present that we forget to realize that most of the road lies ahead nonetheless. The CHAIRMAN. Any further questions, gentlemen? Doctor, I would like to ask just one or two questions. In everyday practice X-rays are used for many purposes; examination of our teeth and throughout the body down to our feet, for that matter. Is it possible that too much of this X-ray may be of more damage than value? Dr. BUGHER. It is quite possible. We do not think of radiation as being beneficial to normal tissue, and particularly if there are unnecessary exposures or prolonged exposures the effect may be very detrimental. Although it is not particularly within the province of this program, such applications as examination of feet for the fitting of shoes and things of that sort seem to be quite unnecessary exposure of parts of the body. On the other hand, the X-ray examination of the chest, which usually means less exposure, actually, is a necessary diagnostic procedure. While the X-ray itself is not going to benefit the man's lungs, the knowledge which is derived from the examination by the roentgenologist is very valuable to him. I think all radiologists tend to be conservative in the application of radiation and to avoid any unnecessary exposure whenever possible. The CHAIRMAN. Doctor, you mentioned the fact that the cancer effort of the Division of Biology and Medicine was about one-fourth, or a little over 10 percent of the Division's effort. What does that represent in dollars and cents? Dr. BUGHER. This year the cancer research dealing with research and therapy amounts to approximately $3 million. And some other projects dealing with the causation of cancer will add a few hundred thousand to that. That is, the AEC contribution to this general effort is on the order of $3 million this year. The CHAIRMAN. What is the total appropriation budget for your Division? Dr. BUGHER. For this year it is approximately $26 million. The CHAIRMAN. What is the total budget of the Atomic Energy Commission, if you happen to know? Dr. BUGHER. It is well over $1 billion for this year, for operations. The CHAIRMAN. Any further questions, gentlemen? If not, proceed with your panel in the way you wish. Dr. BUGHER. Thank you. I will call on Dr. Dunham for the discussion of the program of the Medical Branch. STATEMENT OF DR. CHARLES L. DUNHAM, CHIEF, MEDICAL BRANCH, DIVISION OF BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE, ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION Dr. DUNHAM. As Dr. Bugher has just indicated to you, our cancer program stems from our active interest in cancer as an important hazard associated with the atomic-energy industry. Now, cancer as a hazard in the atomic-energy industry is not entirely related to ionizing radiation as the cause of cancer. We also deal with toxic chemicals such as beryllium, which we are finding in experimental work can produce cancer; so it is not strictly limited to the radiation side of the picture. As you know, over and above our main-line interest in the problem of cancer as an industrial hazard we in the Division of Biology and Medicine wish to apply for the welfare of the country, atomic-energy tools available to us in any way possible. As you will recall, the Congress, in appropriating the first moneys for the Atomic Energy Commission, saw fit to see that we did not forget cancer, and actually put wording into the appropriation directing us to exploit in any way possible our abilities in the cancer field. As Dr. Bugher has said, our activities are limited to research. We have no cancer-control program. We have no special programs of cancer education. We do have a rather sharply defined and limited grant-in-aid type of research contract program with the medical schools aimed at promoting unique and novel applications of atomicenergy products to the study and to the treatment of cancer over and above the activities which we have in our national laboratories, which you will hear about from the doctors here. As you know, the National Cancer Institute and the American Cancer Society and other agencies have extensive programs of grants for cancer research as such. We have not set up a parallel program of grants simply because isotopes or radiation may be used in a research project. We believe our best competence lies in our ability to pick out, foster, and promote pioneering techniques with these new tools. Thus, in addition to our "on site" cancer-research programs which you will soon hear about, we have several rather interesting programs, four of which I would like to mention to you. One we have carried on for many years at the Meharry Medical School. A group there has been doing pioneer work with radiogold and radiosilver, particularly the use of these isotopes as injected into the tumor tissue itself. Also at Washington University in St. Louis we have supported the pioneer work in the use of radiogold in treating cancer of the womb. And at Ohio State University we have supported for several years the use of radiocobalt, the same type of material that is used in the cobalt treatment bombs of teletherapy sources. They are working with it, developing it as a substitute for radium. It is cheaper. It is easier to handle, placing it in needles and threads and the like, available for the surgeons and therapists, particularly in treating cancer of the female genital organs. More recently we have been sponsoring a program in Boston at the Massachusetts General Hospital, where they are using arsenic 74, a radioisotope which emits positrons, which are positive electrical charges as opposed to electrons, which are negative electrical charges. They are using this in the diagnosis of brain tumors. This effort takes advantage of the so-called annihilation-of-matter reaction which is characteristic of the positron. We hope to continue to seek out and to give financial aid to such unique and novel approaches to the cancer problem. When our advisory committee for biology and medicine had its first meetings back in 1948 and looked about to see what could be done immediately to help in the fight against cancer, they developed a program which has continued to the present day of making radioisotopes more or less freely available to workers in the cancer field. The users have, for the most part, had to pay only shipping charges, if the isotopes were to be used in cancer research, cancer diagnosis, and cancer treatment. This contribution they are very proud of, and we hope to continue this program. I believe Dr. Warren may touch on the use of isotopes in cancer research later in this morning's proceedings. In addition to these activities specifically pointing toward cancer, we have in our main-line research activity a very extensive program which is comparable to the type of aid program which is given by the Public Health Service and the Cancer Society in medical research. Actually, because of the inseparability of working with cancer and working with ionizing radiation, we are supporting work in practically every cancer research center in the United States. It is not under the name of cancer research, because they are getting us fundamental information on the effects of ionizing radiation on tissues, as well as their cancerogenic properties. Thus we are supporting work at Dr. Rhoads' institution in New York to the extent of $250,000 a year. We are supporting an extensive program at the New England Deaconess Hospital in Boston. We have work under our auspices at the Lankenau Center in Philadelphia and at the Oklahoma Research Institute in Oklahoma City and at the Donner Laboratory for Cancer at the University of California at Berkeley, just to mention some of the more specific programs. Our interest in the effects of radiation on tissues and its cancerogenic properties has been heightened recently by evidence that certain materials may enhance the cancerogenic effects of other substances. We are supporting a project at the Chicago Medical College in Chicago, where it has been shown that the radiations from radiostrontium-this is a beta radiation, electrons-if given to the skin of an animal in a quantity not sufficient to produce cancer, if later on that animal's skin is rubbed with something like croton oil, which has no carcinogenic properties whatsoever, so far as I know, it will |